By : Ar Meera .P.

Carpentry and Joinery

Art or act to cut, plane, frame and place the raw timber in position, which is to be used for structural construction of buildings.

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Carpentry
Carpentry includes those forms of construction in wood which are subjected to stresses on account of the loads which they support or the pressures which they resist. Permanent constructions as partitions, lintels, floors and roofs Temporary construction as scaffolding, shoring, timbering for trenches, centering for arches and form work to support reinforced concrete work during construction. carpentry is regarded as constructional art of timber which is mostly done on the building site.
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Joinery
'Joinery' is used to indicate the art of preparing and then framing places of timber to form the internal fittings and finishings of houses joinery is used for delicate construction and for enhancing the architectural beauty of timber It includes the construction and fixing of timber works, such as doors, windows, stairs, floor boards, linings, cupboards, furniture etc. In India, the work 'carpentry' is only used to indicate both kinds of work namely, carpentry and joinery.
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Technical Terms in Joinery

Sawing It is the art of cutting of wood by means of saws.
The choice of a particular tool depends upon Nature of cut desired Type of wood Size of cut Working space and handling

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Technical Terms in Joinery

Chamfering. This is the process of planing off the flat edges or corners of a timber piece to form an angle, usually 45. If the chamfered portion does not continue for full length of piece ; it is called stopped chamfer. Bevel. In the process of chamfering, if the angle formed is other than 45, it is known as bevel.
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Technical Terms in Joinery

. Mitring and Scribing. 'Mitring' is the proces of joining two boards or pieces of timber at an angle. If one end of moulding is cut to suit the profile of another moulding, it is known as scribing.
Housing. This indicates the sinking of the edge of one piece of timber or stuff into another.

Rebating. This is the process of cutting away a rectangular portion from the edge of timber piece for sufficient depth to receive another piece which is similarly cut to fit in.

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Technical Terms in Joinery

Boards showing uniformity of grain

Heart side of Timber shown alternated

Groove and Grooving. 'Groove' indicates a recess formed in board or piece of timber. This may have shapes as hollow, V-shape, semi-circular, etc. If these grooves are cut parallel to the grain of the wood for decorative work, it is called 'Plough Grooving'. But, if these grooves are cut perpendicular to the grain of the wood, it is known as 'Trench or cross-grooving'. Shooting. This is the process of dressing the edges of the boards so as to make them straight and square with the face.
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Method of using shooting board

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Making of a simple lap joint

marking gauge is set to half the thickness

extend the line across with trysquare using a tenon saw and a bench hook.

second saw cut

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shoulder plane can then be used to finish the joint

If working across the grain of the wood, a chisel is used to straighten / clean up the joint
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Technical Terms in Joinery

Bead. This is the name given to the semi-circular object formed on edges or surfaces of wood. A decorative treatment applied to various elements of wooden furniture boxes and other items. A bead is typically a rounded shape cut into a square edge to soften the edge and provide some protection against splitting. Beads can be simple round shapes, or more complex patterns. Grounds. These are rough wooden blocks which are fixed to a wall to act as a firm base for the linings, ornamental moulds, etc. The surfaces of the grounds are made flush with the plaster work. Grounds are used in case of superior work. Veneering. This indicates the operation of covering the entire or part of exposed surface of woodwork with veneers to improve its appearance. The inner wood work is designed to satisfy structural requirements whereas the veneered facing is provided for decorative purposes.
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Technical Terms in Joinery

Mortising and Tenoning. 'Mortising' is the process of cutting a rectangular recess of hole in one member to receive a projection, or tenon at the end of another member, 'Tenoning', on the other hand, is the process of forming a projection or torque at the end of a piece, so as to fit into the mortise hole cut in the other piece to form a joint. The joint so formed is known as 'Mortise and Tenon Joint.

Dovetailing. This indicates a method adopted to join two boards usually at right angles to each other. In this, the end of one board is made of fan-shaped pin so as to fit into the similarly shaped mortise cut made in the other board.

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Role of Joints
increasing structural stability, improving aesthetic values, economising timber work, facilitating timber construction itself but joints, at the same time, are considered to be the weakest parts of any structure

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 The joint should be cut and placed in such a fashion that it weakens the connecting timber members to a minimum. Each abutting surface of a joint should be placed in such a way that, as far as possible, the surface is perpendicular to the line of pressure acting on it. Each abutting surface of a joint should be designed for maximum compressive stress, likely to come upon it. The surfaces of a joint should be formed and fitted accurately in order to distribute the stresses uniformly. The fastenings should be proportioned in such a way that they possess equal strength in relation to the members which they connect. The fastenings should be placed and designed in such a manner as to avoid failure of joint by shear or crushing. The joints should be made as simple as possible to save labour in construction. Moreover, the complicated joints are not only difficult to construct but also liable to be attacked by vermins or insects due to the presence of numerous surfaces of angles.
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Principals of joinery

Types of joints
The following types of joints are used in timber construction to suit the different purposes Lengthening Joints, Widening or Side Joints, Bearing Joints. Framing Joints. Angle or Corner Joints. Oblique Shouldered Joints.

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Lengthening Joints- increasing the length eg - ties, struts, members subjected to bending

Lapped joint lapping of members one above another and binding with G I Strips and bolts

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Fished joint

Fished joints-- In this, members are cut square, butted and then joined together by covering with fish plates
Scarfed or spliced joints-- These are formed by making projections in one member and corresponding depressions on the other member

Tabled joints--These joints are formed by cutting special shapes in both the members and then suitably joining by means of fish plates, bolts, straps and keys
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Tabled joint

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Rebated-- This joint is formed by overlapping the cut portions. This joint provides a dust-proof surface.

Widening / Side Joints- extending the width of boards/ planks, placed edge to edge, e g wooden floors, doors
. Butt joint-- This is also known as square, straight or plain joint. In this, two members are simply joined by placing them side to side. This joint is used for ordinary works Rebated-- This joint is formed by overlapping the cut portions. This joint provides a dust-proof surface.
Rebated meeting Joint

Butt Joint
Brass Astragal.

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Rebated and filleted joint-- This joint is formed by introducing a small wooden piece, called 'Fillet' in the rebated portion, having small depression. Tongued and grooved joint--This joint is formed by fitting one member, having tongue on one side into the other member with a corresponding groove on the side Rebated tongued and grooved joint-- In this type, in addition to tongue and groove, a rebate is also provided on the sides of the members and then fitted in

Splayed, tongued and grooved joint-- This joint is similar'to tongue and groove joint, except that tongues and grooves are spliced at an angle

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Tongued and Grooved Flooring Board

Matchboarding, with Bead on One Side.

Matchboarding, with Bead at Each Side.

Matchboarding, Tongued, Grooved and Vee'd.

Double-tongued Matchboarding. Joint with Single Dovetail Tongue and Groove.

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Method of Secret-nailing Hardwood Flooring Boards.

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Ploughed and tongued joint-- In this, both members having similar grooves on sides are fitted with a wooden piece in between.

Dowelled joint--In this, dowels of hard wood, gun metal, brass or bronze, etc. filled in the hole made by joining two grooved members Matched Beaded and veejoint-- This joint is formed by tongue and groove arrangement, and has a special moulding one side and vee-shaped appearance on the other

Keyed joint or dovetail joint-- In this, a key of dovetail or trapezoidal shape is used to fit in the depressions or holes formed by connecting the grooved members

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Bearing Joints-offer strength to members at junction

Halved joint-two timber pieces at right angles, such that they are made to flush on one or two faces by cutting

Cogged joint-This joint is formed to maintain full depth of the member or beam and hence notches are made on one or both the edges of the lower member, leaving an uncut projection, i.e., cog and accordingly it is named as singlecogged or double-cogged joint
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 These joints are almost similar to the bearing joints described above as regards the types and construction. But these are slightly modified to meet special requirements because the primary consideration in their design is not strength, as in bearing joints, but endurance or durability. These joints are used to construct the frames of doors, windows, ventilators and partitions, and hence known as Training joints

Framing Joints-

Bow-fronted Door Dovetailed

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Bearer Rails Dovetailed

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Constructional Frame (as for Plinth or Cornice) showing application of the Dovetail Joint.
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Angle or Corner Joints These joints are employed for connecting the ends and edges of members, Joints parallel or at right angles to their grains. Angle joints are very often secured by nailing, and glue is used in making of such joints.

Combing or Locking Joint.

Corner Joint with Corner Mould

Single Loose Tongue and Double-tongue Joint.

Examples of Tongued and Grooved Corner Joints

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Angle or Corner Joints-

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Oblique Shouldered Joints These joints are required to connect the members of the framework meeting at an acute or obtuse angle, e.g., a principal rafter and tiebeam, a king-post and struts, etc.

Birdsmouth Joint
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Rafter and Tie Beam Joint.

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Hinge Joint
Butt hinge Stop-bound Door Guaging

Marking for Recess. And Sawing

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Paring Out the Hinge Recess in the Door.

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Types of Hinges
Reversible or Double-folding Screen Hinge. Half the thickness of this hinge is let into each wing of the draught screen, allowing the screen to be folded either way. The hinge is costly, but effective in use Strap Hinge It is an elongated variety of the butt hinge, known in the trade as "strap hinge," "desk hinge," or "bagatelle hinge." As its name indicates, it is used on folding bagatelle tables, small writing desks, and other types of work that have but a narrow margin on which to fix the hinges. The long, narrow plates are sunk flush into the wood, the knuckle or rounded portion projecting

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Types of Hinges
Pivot hinge It is used to fix at the top and bottom of a screen

Non-reversible Screen Hinge. It is the non-reversible screen hinge and, as its name implies, will only fold in one direction. back flap hinge with a specially wide wing, used for the fall-down leaf of small tables and similar articles.
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Types of Hinges
Card table hinge. This is let into the edges of the table, so that all is flush or level both above and below the surface. Center or Pivot Hinge

used on the top and bottom of wardrobe doors, more particularly the interior door of a three-winged wardrobe where the method of fixing is confined to the cornice and plinth. The flange carrying the pins or pivot is let into the top and bottom of the door, the remaining flange being let into the cornice and plinth respectively.

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Types of Hinges
Rising Butt Hinges used on dining and drawing-room doors, so that when the door is opened the door rises sufficiently to clear the thickness of the carpet. This hinge has also an advantage over the ordinary butt hinge in that it is self-closing, i.e., the weight of the door plus the bevel on the hinge joint causes the door to close. Band and hook hinges and other ordinary varieties are too well known to require illustrating.

Barrel hinge: This comes in two parts. The threaded part of the hinge is screwed into a pre-drilled hole. They are easy to fit and the hinge can be dismantled.
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Types of Hinges
Tee hinges They are generally used on timber sheds etc where the long arm is fitted to the door and the narrow part to the door jamb. They offer little security as the fixing screws are exposed.

Butt hinges They are probably the most common type of hinge found around the house to hinge two wooden parts. They are used on wooden internal and external doors, also on casement windows, various cupboards and other pieces of furniture.

Concealed hinge Used to hinge cupboard doors so that they are not externally visible. Most types require a large hole (typically 35mm dia) in the door for the body to fit into.

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Inside Hingeing: Method of Letting Butt Hinge into Door Frame and Carcase.

Showing Top and Bottom of Carcase Cut Back to allow Door to Close.

Finger Joint Hinge-is a finger jointa movable interlocking joint used to support the leaf of a Pembroke table. The small portion is screwed to the table rail and the shaped bracket swings out to support the drop leaf.
Finger Joint Hinge.
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Outside hingeing and section

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Nails
A nail is a pin-shaped, sharp object of hard metal, typically steel, used to fasten things together (usually wood). Early buildings were assembled with pegs Pegs were gradually replaced by square (hand cut) nails. With the invention of nail making machines, wire nails became available.

Modern wooden buildings are assembled using nails, threaded fasteners, and glues/adhesives.

Basic considerations of selecting nails

Nail Size Nails are sold by weight or length. Wood nails are measured, or sized, according to length. Nails generally are 1" to 6" in length, usually getting thicker as they get longer. Nails larger than 6" are sometimes called spikes.
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Nails are divided into 5 common types: 1. Common 2. Box 3. Duplex 4. Roofing 5. Deformed shank

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considerations of selecting nails

Styles

Nail points vary, but the four-sided diamond point is the standard point found on most nails.
Nail heads also vary. Smaller heads can be driven in and painted over. Large framing nails have corrugated heads to reduce the danger of a hammer slipping and causing injury or damage. Regular wood nails are often referred to as wire nails. Material Most nails are made from steel or stainless steel. Some nails are galvanized. This means they've been coated with zinc for rust resistance. Galvanized nails are recommended for outdoor applications. Coating can be applied by hot dipping or electroplating. Electroplated nails are shiny, dipped nails have a dull finish.
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considerations of selecting nails

Coatings and Deformations The holding abilities of nails are strengthened by coating or by adding deformations. An adhesive coating creates a stronger bond. The adhesive heats up as the nail is driven. As it cools, the bond solidifies. Deformations such as rings, spirals or barbs drive into wood fibers to hold fast When using coated or ringed nails, remember that these are more difficult to remove and will damage the wood if they're taken out. Nails with no coating are referred to as bright.

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Nails are divided into 5 common types: Common Box Duplex Roofing Deformed shank

Nails are sized according to Penny number, 2d to 40d. Penny originally referred to the number of that size of nail that could be bought for a penny. Today it is the reference to diameter and length. The larger the number the larger the nail.

1. Common Nails are one of the oldest forms of fasteners. 2. Common nails of the same size will have a larger diameter shank than box nails. 3. Common nails are used for most building framing.

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Box nails were developed to reduce the splitting of the wood when nailing smaller pieces of wood to from boxes and crates. Box nails are about the same length as common nails for the same size. Box nails are smaller in diameter for the same size as common nails, which Box nails reduces the potential for splitting. For the same diameter, box nails will have a smaller head Duplex Nails are heavy-duty framing

Duplex Nails
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nails. They are used in temporary applications. Their second head prevents them from being hammered flush with the surface. When the job is done, simply remove the nail by prying it out by the upper head. One common use is concrete forms. Protruding head can be a safety hazard.
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Roofing nails are designed to attach softer materials, such as tar paper and asphalt shingles to wood. They have wider head, for the diameter of the shank, spreads the force over a greater area.

Roofing nails

Common, box, roofing, flooring and many other types of nails are available with deformed shanks

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Brads are small wire type nails used for doing trim work and fastening other thin materials. They come in a variety of diameters, lengths and head shapes. Pre-drilling is recommended in hard woods because they bend quite easily.

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Screws
For fastening, screws are stronger than nails. They can be removed with less damage to the material (especially wood) than nails. Screws have several features to consider: Slot Type

Slotted the conventional single-groove screw head, applied with a flathead screwdriver.
Phillips cross-slotted screwheads withU or V-Shaped slots of uniform width. Driven with a Phillips screwdriver, they're used in woodworking and drywall installation.

Common types of screws

Two types of screw head slots Other head types such as Torx or Robertson require special drivers and are commonly used in electronics, metal or automotive applications.
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Head Type Oval the lower portion is countersunk and the top is rounded. They're easier to remove and better looking than flathead screws. Round are used where the fastened piece is too thin to permit countersinking. They are also used on parts that may require a washer.

Three common screw heads

Flat used in applications where the head needs to be flush with the surface. Slotted and Phillips
Size type are available. Screws are usually 1/4" to 6" long. Gauge is the diameter of the screw shaft (not including threads), rated by numbers 2-24. A larger gauge number indicates a larger screw. The longer a screw is, the harder it is to turn with a screwdriver. Consider a lag screw when you need something over 4" in length. Lag screws are turned with a

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Material and Finish Screws are chrome or brass plated, and can be made from several materials, including brass or stainless steel. Bluing is a finishing (actually black in color) that prevents rust.

Some screws are galvanized (plated with zinc for rust-resistance). Galvanized screws are recommended where wood will be attached to metal.
Exterior screws such as deck screws can react to certain types of wood. Specially treated screws are available for specific applications such as pine, cedar, birch or oak. Stainless steel can also react to the tannins in certain woods (oak for example). Find an alternate material such as brass or use a treated screw in these cases.
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The flat head and oval require three separate operations for installation.
1.Drill pilot hole to the depth of the threads. 2.Drill clearance hole through the first board. 3.Counter sink the surface.

types of drivers used for screws.

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Lag screws are used to install wood or metal members to wood. Primarily used when the strength of a bolt is needed, but a nut can not be used. Lag Screws are installed by drilling a clearance hole through the first member and pilot hole into the second board the depth of the threads.

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Nut and Bolts

A standard bolt has a hex head and a smooth shoulder area beyond the standard amount of threading. Shorter lengths are fully threaded. Tap bolts are fully threaded hex head bolts. A Machine bolt is a heavy-duty fastener. When used correctly, will support and/or sustain the largest sheer or tension load. Several small bolts will support a load better than one large bolt.

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Carriage Bolts Carriage Bolts are easily recognizable because of their round head and short section of square neck. The round head is set flush with the surface of the wood. The square neck prevents bolt from rotating when nut is tightened. Usually difficult to remove because the wood shrinks away from the square neck and then there is no way to prevent the bolt from turning.

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 A bolt is generally inserted through a pre-drilled in the parts that are to be assembled. Tightening and loosening of the bolt is done with a nut.[fastening structural members] Washers should be used when attaching wood to prevent bolt from pulling through the wood. Thread pitch is standardized as NC or NF. Metric sizes are available

Lock washers are designed to prevent the nut from loosening itself by applying back pressure. Common types: Split Internal tooth External tooth Flat Washers are used to spread the clamping force of a bolt over a larger surface area.
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Marking and mortise guage Tenon saw

Carpenters bevel

Framing square

Tri square

Wood poring chisel

Block plane

Hard saw
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Locking pliers
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Pliers

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Chisel and hammer

Cutting tools

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Thank You
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