NA Unit-1

NETWORK ANALYSIS
UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS:

Circuit concept R-L-C parameters
Voltage and current sources
Independent and dependent sources
Source transformations
Kirchhoffs laws
network reduction techniques
series, parallel, series parallel
star to delta and or delta to star transformation
Mesh Analysis
Nodal analysis
Super mesh
super node concept

3
CIRCUIT Input
Output
An Electronic Circuit is a combination of electronic components
and conductive wires interconnected in a way as to achieve an
outcome: - Achieve a current /voltage of a certain value (signal)
- Amplify a signal
- Transfer data

The purpose of an electronic component is to allow the designer to
control the flow of current as to achieve a specified result/output.
(Resistors, Capacitors, Inductors, Diodes, Transistors )
4
Active Components (have directionality)

Passive Components (Have no directionality)
Resistors, capacitors, inductors
(with all the initial conditions are zero)
Ohms Law
I = V / R
Georg Simon Ohm (1787-1854)
I = Current (Amperes) (amps)

V = Voltage (Volts)

R = Resistance (ohms)
How you should be thinking
about electric circuits:
Voltage: a force that
pushes the current
through the circuit (in
this picture it would be
equivalent to gravity)
Resistance: friction that
impedes flow of current
through the circuit
(rocks in the river)
Current: the actual
substance that is
flowing through the
wires of the circuit
(electrons!)

Lect1 EEE 202 9
Basic Electrical Quantities
Basic quantities: current, voltage and power
Current: time rate of change of electric charge
I = dq/dt
1 Amp = 1 Coulomb/sec
Voltage: electromotive force or potential, V 1 Volt
= 1 Joule/Coulomb = 1 Nm/coulomb
Power: P = I V
1 Watt = 1 VoltAmp = 1 Joule/sec
Overview of Circuit Theory
Power is the rate at which energy is being
absorbed or supplied.
Power is computed as the product of voltage
and current:

Sign convention: positive power means that
energy is being absorbed; negative power
means that power is being supplied.
( ) ( ) ( ) VI P t i t v t p = = or
11
Resistors are passive elements that oppose/restrict
the flow of current.

A voltage is developed across its terminal,
proportional to the current through the resistor.
V = IR

Units: Ohms ()

A. Resistors:
Electronic Components (cont.)
Inductors
Inductors are the passive element that opposes sudden change in voltage
Inductor stores certain energy in the presence of magnetic field
The voltage across an inductor is proportional to the rate of change of current
V=L(di/dt)
Units for inductance is : henrys(H)
Inductors
Inductance occurs when current flows through a
(real) conductor.
The current flowing through the conductor sets up a
magnetic field that is proportional to the current.
The voltage difference across the conductor is
proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic
flux.
The proportionality constant is called the inductance,
denoted L.
Inductance is measured in Henrys (H).
Inductors
dt
t di
L t v
) (
) ( =
i(t)
+
-
v(t)
The
rest
of
the
circuit
L
}

=
t
dx x v
L
t i ) (
1
) (
}
+ =
t
t
dx x v
L
t i t i
0
) (
1
) ( ) (
0
Inductors
The current through an inductor cannot
change instantaneously.
The energy stored in the inductor is given by
) (
2
1
) (
2
t Li t w
L
=
Ch06 Capacitors and Inductors 16
6.4 Inductors
An inductor is made of a coil of conducting wire
l
A N
L

2
=
Fig 6.22
(H/m) 10 4
7
0
0
2
=
=
=
t

r
l
A N
L
turns. of number : N
length. : l
area. sectional cross : A
core the of ty permeabili :
Fig 6.23
(a) air-core
(b) iron-core
(c) variable iron-core
19
B. Capacitors:

behave like a tiny rechargeable battery.
(store energy and release it later. )
are made of two parallel conductors separated by a
dielectric.
The ability of a capacitor to store charge is called
Capacitance

C = Q/V (amount of charge stored/applied voltage)

The unit of capacitance is the Farad.
Commonly used capacitances are much smaller than 1
Farad, micro-Farads (10
-6
Farad, F),
nano-Farads (10
-9
Farad, nF),
pico-Farads (10
-12
Farad, pF).

Electronic Components (cont.)
Capacitors
Capacitance occurs when two conductors are
separated by a dielectric (insulator).
Charge on the two conductors creates an electric
field that stores energy.
The voltage difference between the two conductors
is proportional to the charge.

The proportionality constant C is called capacitance.
Capacitance is measured in Farads (F).

( ) ( ) t v C t q =
Capacitors
i(t)
+
-
v(t)
The
rest
of
the
circuit
dt
t dv
C t i
) (
) ( =
}

=
t
dx x i
C
t v ) (
1
) (
}
+ =
t
t
dx x i
C
t v t v
0
) (
1
) ( ) (
0
Capacitors
The voltage across a capacitor cannot change
instantaneously.
The energy stored in the capacitors is given by
) (
2
1
) (
2
t Cv t w
C
=
6.2 Capacitors
A capacitor consists of two conducting plates
separated by an insulator (or dielectric).

(F/m) 10 854 . 8
12
0
0
=
=
=
c
c c c
r
d
A
C
Three factors affecting the value of
capacitance:
1. Area: the larger the area, the greater the
capacitance.
2. Spacing between the plates: the smaller the
spacing, the greater the capacitance.
3. Material permittivity: the higher the permittivity,
the greater the capacitance.

d
A
C

=
Fig 6.4
(a) Polyester capacitor, (b) Ceramic capacitor, (c) Electrolytic capacitor
Fig 6.5
Variable capacitors
Fig 6.3
Fig 6.2
Lect1 EEE 202 29
Active vs. Passive Elements
Active elements can generate energy
Batteries
Passive elements cannot generate energy
Resistors
Capacitors and Inductors (but CAN store energy)

Energy Storage Elements
Capacitors store energy in an electric field.
I nductors store energy in a magnetic field.
Capacitors and inductors are passive
elements:
Can store energy supplied by circuit
Can return stored energy to circuit
Cannot supply more energy to circuit than is
stored.

Independent sources :
1. Voltage source
2. Current source

Dependent sources:
1. Voltage dependent voltage source
2. Voltage dependent current source
3. current dependent voltage source
4. current dependent current source

Types of sources
Ideal voltage source:

An ideal voltage source has zero internal resistance so that changes in load
resistance will not change the voltage supplied.
An ideal voltage source gives a constant voltage, whatever the current is.
A simple example is a 10V battery. For example, a 1ohm resistor or a
10ohm resistor could be connected to it; the voltage across both resistors
would be 10V but the currents would be different.
Practical voltage source:

Practical voltage source has an internal resistance (greater than zero),
but we treat this internal resistance as being connected in series with
an ideal voltage source.
An ideal voltage source has zero internal resistance

Ideal current source:

An ideal current source is a circuit element that maintains a prescribed
current through its terminals regardless of the voltage across those
terminals.

A ideal current source gives a constant current whatever the load is.

If you have a 2A current source for example:
-with a 3 ohm resistor it would automatically change the voltage to 6V
-with a 30 ohm resistor it would automatically change the voltage to 60V
but the current would be 2A whichever resistor was connected.
Practical current source:

Practical current source has an internal resistance, but we treat this
internal resistance as being connected in parallel with an ideal current
source.
An ideal current source has infinite internal resistance.

Dependent sources :

Dependent sources behave just like independent voltage and current
sources, except their values are dependent in some way on another
voltage or current in the circuit.
A dependent source has a value that depends on another
voltage or current in the circuit.
Source transformation
Another circuit simplifying technique
It is the process of replacing a voltage source v
S
in series with a
resistor R by a current source i
S
in parallel with a resistor R, or vice
versa
+

R
v
s
a
b
Terminal a-b sees:
Open circuit voltage: v
s
Short circuit current: v
s
/R
For this circuit to be equivalent, it
must have the same terminal
charateristics
R i
s
a
b
Source Transformations
A method called Source Transformations will allow the transformations of a voltage
source in series with a resistor to a current source in parallel with resistor.
+
s
v
a
b
R
The double arrow indicate that the transformation is bilateral , that we can start with either
configuration and drive the other
s
i
a
b
R
+
s
v
a
b
R
L
R
s
i
a
b
R
L
R
L
i
L
i
s
L
v
R R
=
+
L
i
L
R
R R
=
+
L s
i i
Equating we have ,
s
L L
v R
R R R R
=
+ +
s
i
s
s
v
i
R
=
OR
s s
v Ri =
Simple Circuits
Series circuit
All in a row
1 path for electricity
1 light goes out and the
circuit is broken

Parallel circuit
Many paths for electricity
1 light goes out and the
others stay on

circuit diagram
cell switch lamp wires
Scientists usually draw electric circuits using symbols;
Series resistors & voltage division
Series: Two or more elements are in series if they are cascaded or
connected sequentially and consequently carry the same current.
The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected in a
series is the sum of the individual resistances
=
= + + + =
N
n
n N eq
R R R R R
1
2 1
Lets say we want to find v
2
v
2
= iR
2
where,

i =
v
R
1
+R
2

v
2
=
R
2
R
1
+R
2
v
- Voltage Division Rule

- Principle of Voltage Division

Note that if R
2
>> R
1,
then v
2
~ v
R
1

v
R

= i = 0
+ v
1
+ v
2

v v =
+
=
2
v
2 1
2
2
R R
R
v
If R
2
is replaced with open circuit,
the resistance would be
0 v
1
=
+
= v
2 1
1
1
R R
R
v
Resistors in Series
Consider two resistors in series with a voltage
v(t) across them:
v
1
(t)

v
2
(t)

2 1
1
1
) ( ) (
R R
R
t v t v
+
=
2 1
2
2
) ( ) (
R R
R
t v t v
+
=
R
1

R
2

-
+
+
-
+
-
v(t)

i(t)

Voltage division:
Parallel resistors & current division
Parallel: Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected
to the same two nodes and consequently have the same voltage
across them.
The equivalent resistance of a circuit with N resistors in parallel is:
N eq
R R R R
1 1 1 1
2 1
+ + + =
Lets say we want to find i
2
where,

|
|
.
|
\
|
+
= =
2 1
2 1
eq
R R
R R
i iR v
i
R R
R
i
2 1
1
2
+
=
- Current Division Rule

2
2
R
v
i =
- Principle of Current Division

+

v

+

v

i i i
R R
R
i
2
2 1
1
2
=
+
=
0 i i
R R
R
i
1
2 1
2
1
=
+
=
0 i i
R R
R
i
2
2 1
1
2
=
+
=
i i i
R R
R
i
1
2 1
2
1
=
+
=
Resistors in Parallel
Consider two resistors in parallel with a voltage
v(t) across them:
2 1
2
1
) ( ) (
R R
R
t i t i
+
=
2 1
1
2
) ( ) (
R R
R
t i t i
+
=
R
1
R
2

+
-
v(t)

i(t)

Current division:
i
1
(t)

i
2
(t)

ECE 201 Circuit Theory I 52
Series-Parallel Combinations of Inductance and
Capacitance
Inductors in Series
All have the same current

1 1
di
v L
dt
=
2 2
di
v L
dt
=
3 3
di
v L
dt
=
1 2 3
v v v v = + +
1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
( )
eq
eq
v v v v
di di di
v L L L
dt dt dt
di
v L L L
dt
di
v L
dt
L L L L
= + +
= + +
= + +
=
= + +
To Determine the Equivalent Inductance
The Equivalent Inductance
Inductors in Parallel
All Inductors have the same voltage across
their terminals.
0
0
0
1 1 0
1
2 2 0
2
3 3 0
3
1
( )
1
( )
1
( )
t
t
t
t
t
t
i vd i t
L
i vd i t
L
i vd i t
L
t
t
t
}
}
}
= +
= +
= +
0
0
0
1 2 3
1 2 0 3 0
1 2 3
0
1 2 3
0 1 0 2 0 3 0
1 1 1
( ) ( ) ( )
1
( )
1 1 1 1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
t
t
t
t
eq
eq
i i i i
i vd i t i t i t
L L L
i vd i t
L
L L L L
i t i t i t i t
t
t
}
}
= + +
| |
= + + + + +
|
\ .
= +
= + +
= + +
Summary for Inductors in Parallel
Capacitors in Series
Problem # 6.30
Capacitors in Parallel
Problem # 6.31
6.3 Series and Parallel Capacitors
The equivalent capacitance of N parallel-
connected capacitors is the sum of the
individual capacitance.
N
i i i i i + + + + = ...
3 2 1
dt
dv
C
dt
dv
C
dt
dv
C
dt
dv
C i
N
+ + + + = ...
3 2 1
dt
dv
C
dt
dv
C
eq
N
k
K
=
|
.
|
\
|
=

=1
N eq
C C C C C + + + + = ....
3 2 1
Fig 6.15
N eq
C C C C C
1
...
1 1 1 1
3 2 1
+ + + + =
Series Capacitors
The equivalent capacitance of series-
connected capacitors is the reciprocal of the
sum of the reciprocals of the individual
capacitances.
N eq
t
N
t
eq
C
t q
C
t q
C
t q
C
t q
id
C C C C
id
C
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
)
1
...
1 1 1
(
1
2 1
3 2 1
+ + + =
+ + + + =
} }

t t
) ( ... ) ( ) ( ) (
2 1
t v t v t v t v
N
+ + + =
2 1
1 1 1
C C C
eq
+ =
2 1
2 1
C C
C C
C
eq
+
=
These results enable us to look the capacitor
in this way: 1/C has the equivalent effect as
the resistance. The equivalent capacitor of
capacitors connected in parallel or series can
be obtained via this point of view, so is the Y-
connection and its transformation
Table 6.1
Y A transformation
Star delta transformation
How can we combine R
1
to R
7
?
) (
1
c b a
c b
R R R
R R
R
+ +
=
) (
2
c b a
a c
R R R
R R
R
+ +
=
) (
3
c b a
b a
R R R
R R
R
+ +
=
1
1 3 3 2 2 1
R
R R R R R R
R
a
+ +
=
2
1 3 3 2 2 1
R
R R R R R R
R
b
+ +
=
3
1 3 3 2 2 1
R
R R R R R R
R
c
+ +
=
Delta -> Star Star -> Delta
Y A transformation
Y A transformation
example
Y A transformation
example
Lect1 EEE 202 72
Kirchhoffs Laws
Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL)
sum of all currents entering a node is zero
sum of currents entering node is equal to sum of
currents leaving node
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL)
sum of voltages around any loop in a circuit is zero
Lect1 EEE 202 73
KCL (Kirchhoffs Current Law)
The sum of currents entering the node is zero:

Analogy: mass flow at pipe junction
i
1
(t)
i
2
(t) i
4
(t)
i
5
(t)
i
3
(t)
=
=
n
j
j
t i
1
0 ) (
Lect1 EEE 202 74
Open Circuit
What if R = ?

i(t) = v(t)/R = 0
v(t)
The Rest
of the
Circuit
i(t)=0
+

i(t)=0
Lect1 EEE 202 75
Short Circuit
What if R = 0 ?

v(t) = R i(t) = 0
The Rest
of the
Circuit
v(t)=0
i(t)
+

Overview of Circuit Theory
Basic quantities are voltage, current, and
power.
The sign convention is important in
computing power supplied by or absorbed by
a circuit element.
Circuit elements can be active or passive;
active elements are sources.

KCL and KVL
Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL) and Kirchhoffs
Voltage Law (KVL) are the fundamental laws of
circuit analysis.
KCL is the basis of nodal analysis in which
the unknowns are the voltages at each of the
nodes of the circuit.
KVL is the basis of mesh analysis in which
the unknowns are the currents flowing in each
of the meshes of the circuit.
KCL and KVL
KCL
The sum of all currents
entering a node is
zero, or
The sum of currents
entering node is equal
to sum of currents
leaving node.
i
1
(t)
i
2
(t) i
4
(t)
i
5
(t)
i
3
(t)
=
=
n
j
j
t i
1
0 ) (
Nodal Analysis
Nodal Analysis

NA Unit-1

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NETWORK ANALYSIS

UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS:

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