HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY

Intro to Ships and Naval Engineering (2.1)

HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Intro to Ships and Naval Engineering (2.1)
Factors which influence design:
Size
Speed
Seakeeping
Maneuverability
Stability
Special Capabilities (Amphib, Aviation, ...)

Compromise is required!
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Categorizing Ships (2.2)
Methods of Classification:

1.0 Usage:

Merchant Ships (Cargo, Fishing, Drill, etc)
Naval and Coast Guard Vessels
Recreational Boats and Pleasure Ships
Utility Tugs
Research and Environmental Ships
Ferries
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Categorizing Ships (2.2)
Methods of Classification (cont):

2.0 Physical Support:

Hydrostatic
Hydrodynamic
Aerostatic
(Aerodynamic)
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Categorizing Ships (2.2)
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Categorizing Ships (2.2)
Hydrostatic Support (also know as
Displacement Ships) Float by displacing
their own weight in water

Includes nearly all traditional military and
cargo ships and 99% of ships in this course

Small Waterplane Area Twin Hull ships
(SWATH)

Submarines
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Categorizing Ships (2.2)
Aerostatic Support - Vessel rides on a
cushion of air. Lighter weight, higher
speeds, smaller load capacity.

Air Cushion Vehicles - LCAC: Opens up 75% of
littoral coastlines, versus about 12% for
displacement

Surface Effect Ships - SES: Fast, directionally
stable, but not amphibious
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Categorizing Ships (2.2)
Hydrodynamic Support - Supported by
moving water. At slower speeds, they
are hydrostatically supported

Planing Vessels - Hydrodynamics pressure
developed on the hull at high speeds to
support the vessel. Limited loads, high power
requirements.

Hydrofoils - Supported by underwater foils, like
wings on an aircraft. Dangerous in heavy seas.
No longer used by USN. (USNA Project!)
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Categorizing Ships (2.2)
Hydrostatic Support - Based on
Archimedes Principle

Archimedes Principle - An object partially or
fully submerged in a fluid will experience a
resultant vertical force equal in magnitude to
the weight of the volume of fluid displaced by
the object.
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Categorizing Ships (2.2)
Archimedes Principle - The Equation
V = g F
B

where: F
B
= is the magnitude of the resultant buoyant force in lb

= (rho) density of the fluid in lb s
2
/ ft
4
or slug/ft
3

g = magnitude of accel. due to gravity (32.17 ft/s
2
)

V = volume of fluid displaced by the object in ft
3



HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
How are these vessels supported?
Hydrostatic

Hydrodynamic

Aerostatic

A combination?
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
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HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Brain Teasers!
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Representing Ship Designs
Problems include:

Terms to use (jargon)

How to represent a 3-D object on 2-D paper
Sketches
Drawings
Artists Rendition

HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Basic Dimensions (2.3.3)
Design Waterline (DWL) - The waterline
where the ship is designed to float.

Stations - Parallel planes from forward to aft,
evenly spaced (like bread). Normally an odd number
to ensure an even number of blocks.
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Basic Dimensions (2.3.3)
Forward Perpendicular (FP) - Forward
station where the bow intersects the DWL.
Station 0.


Aft Perpendicular (AP) - After station
located at either the rudder stock or the
intersection of the stern with the DWL.
Station 10.

Length Between Perpendiculars (Lpp) -Distance
between the AP and the FP. In general the
same as LWL (length at waterline).

HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Basic Dimensions (2.3.3)
Length Overall (LOA) - Overall length of the
vessel.

Midships Station ( ) - Station midway
between the FP and the AP. Station 5 in
a 10-station ship. Also called amidships.
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Hull Form Representation (2.3.0-2.3.3)
Lines Drawings - Traditional graphical
representation of the ships hull form. Lines
Half-Breadth
Sheer Plan
Body Plan
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Hull Form Representation (2.3.0-2.3.3)
Lines Plan
Half-
Breadth
Plan
Sheer Plan
Body Plan
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Hull Form Representation (2.3.0-2.3.3)
Half-Breadth Plan (Breadth = Beam)
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Hull Form Representation (2.3.0-2.3.3)
Half-Breadth Plan (Breadth = Beam)

Intersection of horizontal planes with the hull
to create waterlines. (Parallel with water.)

HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Hull Form Representation (2.3.0-2.3.3)
Sheer Plan
Parallel to centerplane
Pattern for construction of longitudinal framing.

HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Hull Form Representation (2.3.0-2.3.3)
Sheer Plan

Intersection of planes parallel to the centerline
plane define the Buttock Lines. These show
the ships hull shape at a given distance from
the centerline plane.
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Hull Form Representation (2.3.0-2.3.3)
Body Plan
Pattern for construction of transverse framing.

HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Hull Form Representation (2.3.0-2.3.3)
Body Plan
Intersection of
planes parallel to the
centerline plane define
the Section Lines.

Section lines
show the shape of
the hull from the front
view for a
longitudinal position
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Table of Offsets (2.4)
The distances from the centerplane are called the
offsets or half-breadth distances.
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Table of Offsets (2.4)
Used to convert graphical information to a
numerical representation of a three
dimensional body.

Lists the distance from the center plane to the
outline of the hull at each station and waterline.

There is enough information in the Table of
Offsets to produce all three lines plans.

HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Hull Form Characteristics (2.5)
Depth (D) - Distance from the keel to the deck.
Remember Depth of Hold.

Draft (T) - Distance from the keel to the surface of the water.

Beam (B) - Transverse distance across each section.
Half-Breadths are half of beam.
Flare
Tumblehome
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Hull Form Characteristics (2.5)
Keel (K) - Reference point on the bottom of the ship and is
synonymous with the baseline.
Beam (B)
Depth (D)
C
L
Draft (T)
Freeboard
Camber
Typical view of the midship section of a ship.
K

W L
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Centroids (2.6)
Centroid The geometric center of a body.

Center of Mass - A single point location
of the mass.

Better known as the Center of Gravity
(CG).

CG and Centroids are only in the same
place for uniform (homogenous)
mass!
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Centroids (2.6)
a1
a2
a3
an
y1
y2
y3
yn
Y
X
Centroids and Center of Mass can be found by
using a weighted average.
( )

=
=
1 i
i
1 i
i i
ave
a
a y
y

+ + +
+ + +
=
3 2 1
3 3 2 2 1 1
ave
a a a
a y a y a y
y
HULL FORM AND
GEOMETRY
What is the longitudinal center of gravity of
this 18 foot row boat?
Hull: 150 lb at station 6
Seat: 10 lb at station 5
Rower: 200 lb at station 5.5

( ) ( ) ( )
200 10 150
5 . 5 200 5 10 6 150
LCG
+ +
+ +
=
bow the from ft 25 . 10 or
7 . 5 Stn LCG =
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Center of Flotation (F or CF) (2.7.1)
The centroid of the operating waterplane.
(The center of an area.)

The point about which the ship
will list and trim!

Transverse Center of Flotation (TCF) -
Distance of the Center of Flotation from
the centerline.(Often = 0 feet)
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Center of Flotation (F or CF) (2.7.1)
Longitudinal Center of Flotation (LCF) -
Distance from midships (or the FP or
AP) to the Center of Flotation.

The Center of Flotation changes as the
ship lists or trims because the shape of
the waterplane changes.
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Center of Buoyancy (B or CB) (2.7.2)
Centroid of the Underwater Volume.

Location where the resultant force of
buoyancy (F
B
) acts.

Transverse Center of Buoyancy (TCB) -
Distance from the centerline to the
Center of Buoyancy.

HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Center of Buoyancy (B or CB) (2.7.2)
Vertical Center of Buoyancy (VCB or KB) -
Distance from the keel to the Center of
Buoyancy.

Longitudinal Center of Buoyancy (LCB) -
Distance from the amidships or AP or
FP to the Center of Buoyancy.

Center of Buoyancy moves when the ship
lists or trims (TCB).
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Center of Buoyancy (B or CB) (2.7.2)
Which way is it moving? Fwd or Aft?
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Fundamental Geometric Calculations (2.8)
A ships hull is a complex shape which cannot
be described by a mathematical equation!

How can centroids, volumes, and areas be
calculated? (Hint: you cant integrate!)

Use Numerical Methods to approximate an integral!

Trapezoidal Rule (linear approximation)

Simpsons Rule (quadratic approximation)
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Fundamental Geometric Calculations (2.8.1)
Example: Waterplane Calculation (Trapezoidal)
y f x
Area f x dx
Stn
Stn
=
=
}
( )?
( )
0
10
Stn0
Stn10
Solution: Break into smaller pieces and add up!
+ +...+
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Fundamental Geometric Calculations (2.8.1)
Simpsons Rule - Used to integrate a curve with
an odd number of evenly spaced ordinates.
(Ex. Stations 0 - 10)
P (-s, y )
o
o
P (0, y )
1 1
P (s, y )
2 2
y
x
-s s
0
y(x) cx
2
dx e
2
( ) y x cx dx e = + +
Area under the curve between -s and s:





Solving this equation for the given
endpoints:



A simple example with a rectangle...
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Fundamental Geometric Calculations (2.8.1)
2 2
( ) (2 6 )
3
s
s
s
Area cx dx e dx cs e

= + + = +
}
0 1 2
( 4 )
3
s
Area y y y = + +
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Fundamental Geometric Calculations (2.8.1)
If the curve extends over more than three
points the equation becomes:






s is the spacing between ordinates. Usually
will be the spacing between stations or
waterlines.
0 1 2 3
( 4 2 4 ... )
3
n
s
Area y y y y y = + + + + +
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Section (2.9)
Using Simpsons 1st Rule, you must* be able
to calculate:

Waterplane Area

Sectional Area

Submerged Volume

Longitudinal Center of Flotation (LCF)
* meaning: this will be on the homework, labs,
quizzes, and exams!
Applying Simpsons Rule (2.9)
Methodology

Draw a picture of what you intend to
integrate.

Show the differential element you are using.

Properly label your axis and drawing.

Write out the generalized calculus equation
in the proper symbols (optional).

HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Applying Simpsons Rule (2.9)
Methodology (cont)

Write out Simpsons Equation in generalized
form (if a curved shape).

Substitute each number in the generalized
Simpsons Equation.

Calculate the final answer.
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Waterplane Area (2.9.1)
Numerically integrate the half-breadth as a
function of the length of the vessel.
y
FP
AP
x
dx
y(x)
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Waterplane Area (2.9.1)
Writing out the Simpsons equation:






where:

A
wp
is the waterplane area in ft
2

s is the Simpsons spacing
y(x) is the y offset or half-breadth at each value of x in ft

Example for a ship!
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
0 2.5 5 7.5 10
2 ( 4 2 4 )
3
stn stn stn stn stn
s
Awp y y y y y = + + + +
Section Area (2.9.2)
Numerical integration of the half- breadth as a
function of the draft.
z
y
T
dz
y(z)
CL
To Port
Deck
WL@10'
WL@5'
Baseline
Up
Ex. View at
Section 5,
looking aft.
This is from
the Body Plan.
Stn 5
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Section Area (2.9.2)
Determine how to find the area(s) by using which
methods (Simpsons must be an odd number of
points!)
Writing out the generalized Simpsons Equation
and the triangle equation:

HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
sec 2.5 12.5 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5
sec 0 2.5 2.5
2 ( 4 2 4 )
3
2*0.5* *
_ _ _ _
twl wl wl wl wl wl
twl wl
s
A y y y y y
A s y
then add the two areas

= + + + +
=
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Archimedes Principle - The Equation
V = g F
B

Recall that the goal of us using the Lines Plan
And the Table of Offsets was to find the
Volume, and hence the buoyant force!
And, if in static equilibrium, then F
B
=Weight!
But so far, we can only calculate the section
and waterplane areas
Submerged Volume: Longitudinal Integration
(2.9.3)
Integration of the section areas over the length of
the ship. Curve of Areas

HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
FP
Stn0
AP
Stn10
As (ft
2
)
Stn4
Area of
Station 4
dx
A
Sect
(x)
z
y
x
What is a barges section area, volume and curve of areas if is 100
ft long, 25 feet beam and 10 feet draft?
Curve of Areas
Stn4
HULL FORM AND
GEOMETRY
What is a barges section area, volume, curve of
areas and displacement?
Section Area = Beam x Draft
Volume = Section Area x Length
100 ft long, 25 feet beam and 10 feet draft
FP AP
Curve of Areas
Section
Area
V = g F
B

Submerged Volume: Longitudinal Integration
(2.9.3)
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
So, the volume if using Simpsons is:
) A A 2 A 4 A (
3
s
Vol
10 2 1 0 s
+ + + + = V =
Ques: where is the 2?
Longitudinal Center of Flotation (LCF) (2.9.4)
(Centroid of Waterplane Area)
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Point at which the vessel ___ and ___?

Distance from the Forward Perpendicular to the
center of flotation (or from MP).

Found as a weighted average of the distance from
the Forward Perpendicular multiplied by the
ratio of the half-breadth to the total waterplane
area.
Longitudinal Center of Flotation (LCF) (2.9.4)
(Centroid of Waterplane Area)
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Drawing of the LCF:
?
y
FP
AP
x
dx
y(x)
X
LCF
Recall: For most normal vessels LCF is between Stn 5 and 6.7
Longitudinal Center of Flotation (LCF) (2.9.4)
(Centroid of Waterplane Area)
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Writing the general calculus equation and the
general Simpsons form (for 4 Simpsons spaces in a
10 station ship):
0
0 0 2.5 2.5 5 5 7.5 7.5 10 10
2
( )
2
( 4 2 4 )
3
LWL
stn stn stn stn stn stn stn stn stn stn
LCF x y x dx
Awp
s
LCF x y x y x y x y x y
Awp
=
= + + + +
}
Sample Quiz Questions!
The Center of Flotation is:
a. Centroid of the
underwater volume
b. Point at which Fb acts
c. Centroid of the
waterplane
d. Point at which the
hydrostatic force acts
To calculate the submerged
volume of a ship, one
would
a. Integrate half-breadths
from the keel to the
waterplane
b. Integrate half-breadths
longitudinally at the
waterline
c. Integrate section areas
longitudinally
d. Use Simpsons Rule to
integrate waterplane areas
at each station
Curves of Form (2.10)
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
WHAT THEY ARE: Graphical representation
of the ships geometric-based properties.

WHY: When weight is added, removed or
shifted, the underwater shape changes and
therefore the geometric properties change.

DETAILS:
Based on a given average draft.
Unique for every vessel.
The ship is assumed to be in seawater.
Curves of Form (2.10)
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Curves of Form Include:

Displacement
LCB
VCB
Immersion (TPI)
LCF
MT1
And some others...

Curves of Form (2.10)
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Curves of Form (2.10.1.2)
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Longitudinal Center of Buoyancy (LCB):

The distance in feet from the longitudinal
reference position to the center of buoyancy.

The reference position could be the FP or
midships. If it is midships remember that
distances aft of midships are negative!
Curves of Form (2.10.1.3)
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Vertical Center of Buoyancy (VCB):

The distance in feet from the baseplane to the
center of buoyancy.

Sometimes this distance is labeled KB with a
bar over the letters.
Curves of Form (2.10.1.4)
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Tons Per Inch Immersion (TPI):

TPI is defined as the tons required to obtain
one inch of sinkage in salt water.

Parallel sinkage is when the ship changes its
forward and after drafts by the same amount
so that no change in trim occurs.
Curves of Form (2.10.1.4)
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
An approximate formula for TPI based on the area
of the waterplane can be derived as follows:





2
3
2
( )
1
( )
1
1 64
12 2240
1
( )
420
weight toincreasethedraft oneinch LT
TPI
in
g for oneinch
in
lb ft LT
Awpft in
ft in lb
in
Awp LT
ft
in

=
V
=
=
=
Curves of Form (2.10.1.6)
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Longitudinal Center of Flotation (LCF):

The distance in feet from the longitudinal
reference point to the center of flotation.

The reference position could be the FP or
midships. If it is midships remember that
distances aft of midships are negative.
Curves of Form (2.10.1.7)
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Moment to Trim One Inch (Moment/ Trim 1 or
MT1"):

The ship will rotate about the (?) when a
moment is applied to it.

The moment can be produced by adding,
removing, or shifting a weight some distance
from the center of flotation.

The units are?
Curves of Form (2.10.1.7)
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Trim is defined as the change in draft aft minus
the change in draft forward.


If the ship starts level and trims so that the
forward draft increases by 2 inches and the aft
draft decreases by 1 inch, the trim would be -3
inches.
Curves of Form (2.10.1.7)
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
Since a ship is typically wider at the stern than at
the bow, the center of flotation will typically be
aft of midships.


This means that when a ships trims, it will
typically have a greater change in the forward
draft than in the after draft.
Curves of Form (2.10.1.8)
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
KM
L
: (A measure of pitch stability)

The distance in feet from the keel to the
longitudinal metacenter.

This distance is on the order of one hundred to
one thousand feet whereas the distance from
the keel to the transverse metacenter is only
on the order of ten to thirty feet.
Curves of Form (2.10.1.8)
HULL FORM AND GEOMETRY
KM
T
: (A measure of roll stability)

This is the distance in feet from the keel to the
transverse metacenter.

Typically, we do not bother putting the
subscript T for any property in the transverse
direction because it is assumed that when no
subscript is present the transverse direction is
implied.
The End of Chapter 2
Did you meet all the chapters objectives?!

In one word buoyancy!