08 Photovoltaics

07_Photovoltaics
Background Photovoltaic (PV) energy:
Cost is the only BIG issue

The good news: for some areas solar cells are competitive The bad news: for many not, this is by far the largest part yet BUT: prediction for competitiveness for residential (peak power) application had to be modified over the last 5 years: 2018 2015 2013 (prediction last year This year: We are there
W. Bergholz GEE2 Spring 2012
07_Photovoltaics
PV Competitiveness (after W. Hoffmann, RWE Schott)
Update 2012
W. Bergholz GEE2 Spring 2012 2
07_Photovoltaics
PV Competitiveness (after W. Hoffmann, RWE Schott):

demand during the day
available at peak power
From the presentation of K.H. Ksters, Conergy

PV integration in the overall energy system
PV integration up to 10 GW without change of total energy system, but we are already approaching 20GW! W. Bergholz GEE2 Spring 2012 4
07_Photovoltaics PV share (after W. Hoffmann, RWE Schott): still very small!
Update 2011: Germany 3% PV !!!!
07_Photovoltaics PV share (after W. Hoffmann, RWE Schott): renewables will be needed in the long term!
07_Photovoltaics
Projected growth according to EPIA and OECD:
Prediction by OECD / European Photovoltaics Industry Association (EPIA) for Photovoltaics capacity growth (annual installation capacity) and implications for the demand on the labourmarket. (1MWpeak at present translates into approx. 5 Million $ turnover in 2006)

People working in renewable energy sector
people employed (2006, vs 2004 (grey))
From 157000 employed people in 2004 to 231000 in 2006
PV ca. 25000 (2006), Trend: strong increase of engineers in PV
07_Photovoltaics Cost reduction follows a generic experiece curve (after W.

Hoffmann, RWE Schott):
this is true for cars, airplanes, watches,....
10
07_Photovoltaics Cost reduction follows a generic experiece curve (after W.

Hoffmann, RWE Schott):
11
07_Photovoltaics The analogous curve from a different source:
12

Price learning curve of crystalline Si PV modules
Key levers to reduce price: material cost, production, h
13
07_Photovoltaics
4 main markets (after W. Hoffmann, RWE Schott), 3 are econically viable already to-day !
14
07_Photovoltaics
Expected market penetration by grid parity (competitive prices for peak demand): In a few years: South of Italy
SINCE 2010!!!
15
07_Photovoltaics
Expected market penetration by grid parity (competitive prices for peak demand): In 7 years: Spain and other Mediterranian Countries
SINCE 2011!!!
16
07_Photovoltaics
Expected market penetration by grid parity (competitive prices for peak demand): In 12 years: in Germany and Central Europe
NOW!!!
17
History of PV
1904 1921
Einstein, Photoelectric effect Nobel Prize (not for the Theory of Relativity)
1954 1954 1958
RCA: Report on the photovoltaic (PV) effect Bell Labs: The first solar cells with h = 4-6% Solar cells for space applications, h = 9%
18
History of PV
1970 1980 First commercial PV solar cells companies 1983 WW Solar cell production: 21.3 MW peak power for $ 250 million $ 12 000 per KW peak
19
07_Photovoltaics
1990s 2003
PV companies: Arco Solar, BP Solar, Kyocera, Sharp, Siemens, Solar Power,... Largest solar power plant in Hemau, Bavaria with 4 MW peak (nuclear plants: >1000MW)
Cost 2012:
1700 per KW peak (large plants) <17 Cents per KWh
Basics
http://www.solarserver.de/wissen/photovoltaik-e.html.
Strong trend to thinner cells, 0.15 mm is the standard now
21
Basics
Approx. Intensity of solar radiation
Isc
approx. operating point here the
power U x I is maximized!
Light intensity up
Uoc
22
Basics (this and the following slides from T. Dinkel, PhD proposal
To understand this performance, we need to remind ourself of the diode principles and develop an equivalent circuit:
23
In a homogenously doped semiconductor, due to the balance between
the diffusive motion

the drift
of carriers leads to the space charge, electric field and potential within diode junction
24
In the last semester, we saw that this leads to the upper I(U) curve of a diode (solution of drift and diffusion PDEs leads to Shockleys equation)
Ilumination sets up an additional photocurrent (from electron hole pairs which are generated by the light)
This shifts the I(U) curve down by the short circuit current
25
Equivalent circuit (without material resistances) has takes into account both the space charge region and the quasi neutral zones:
26
Practical example:
Note: the larger FF, the larger the efficiency
27
In reality, the series resistance Rs (material, metal bus bars) and the shunt resistance Rsh have to be taken into account and can seriously degrade performance:
28
Effect of
Rs:
Rs consumes some of the voltage available to the load
FF smaller!
29
Effect of
Rsh:
Rsh consumes some of the current from the current source FF smaller!
30
Basics Typical Si wafer parameters

Uoc 0.6V, Isc 2A/100cm-2 at standard illumination and 25 C (for higher T, efficiency goes down, about 0.4% reduction of energy havest per degree!) Operation point at U x I = max
Max. theoretical efficiency: 28%
31
Basics Typical Si wafer parameters

Losses due to:
Heating of module (efficiency goes down, look at the previous equations) Reflection
Sun spectrum below band gap not usable

shadowing of the front surface by metal lines losses due to Rsh and R s (Si material resisistance and bus bars) Losses due to contamination and defects
32
Basics Typical efficiencies of cells, module 2 % lower:

Type Si crystalline Si multicrystalline Si amorphous Max. lab 24 27% 18% 13% max production 17 21% 16 18% 5 7%
33

Many new technologies competing
by E.Weber, ISE Freiburg
34
From the presentation of K.H. Ksters, Conergy How to optimise the efficiency of a solar cell?
Key levers: minimise reflectivity absorb light in semiconductor to generate electron-hole pairs, ensure that maximum of electrons are collected at front side emitter / W. Bergholz GEE2 Spring 2012 35 holes are collected at back contact

Photovoltaic conversion
For a given material only a part of sun light can be converted into electron-hole pairs
(Si: max efficiency cell GEE2 is 29%, present record is 24,3%, W.of Bergholz Spring 2012 36
based on GaIn/As based triple junction a record of 41,1% has been achieved)

Many challenges for engineers . for example: material enginnering of silicon
current
The quality of silicon has a strong influence on the W. Bergholz GEE2 Spring 2012 37 efficiency of a solar cell

Many challenges for engineers . for example: min. reflectivity, surface passivation
H H
H H H H
Siliconnitride
H
X X
X X
H
H
X X
Si
Surface texture
Si
Si
Passivation SiNX Reflectivity : ~ 10 %H H atom X Defect, Microcrack etc. green light not reflected
(defects, interfaces)
-> blue wafer The silicon surface has a strong influence on the efficiency
of a solar cell
38

Many challenges for engineers . for example: metallisation / screenprint
Front side
(Ag) p-Si
Ni
Emitter n+
Back side
(Al)
Metallisation
Screenprinting of paste & firing
The metallisation has a strong influence on the efficiency of W. Bergholz GEE2 Spring 2012 39 a solar cell
Basics A PV SYSTEM consists of:

solar cells built into a solar module DC AC converter: INVERTER
Batteries + Charge / Discharge Controller

If applicable: connection to mains grid
40
A real Residential System PV modules before mounting
41
A real Residential System Preparation of the roof to mount the modules:
42
A real Residential System Mounting the modules on the roof:
43
A real Residential System The PV generator is complete:
44
A real Residential System

The inverter for DC (300V, up to 15A) conversion to AC 230V, up to 19A
45
Basics A PV SYSTEM EXAMPLE:
46
Ecological, economic boundary conditions & long term needs Artem Tolokonnikov, Podolsky Silicon
PV is the ideal energy source:

No CO2 emission Local generation possible
No heating of environment
No consumption of non-renewable ressources (except for production)
No radioactivity or other agressive substances produced
47

PV value chain
Silicon Feedstock Silicon bricks
Silicon Wafer
Silicon Solar cell
Solar Module Solar System
A PV producer needs to master all parts of value chain

Very few companies active in all parts of value chain
Low Cost Solar Cells from expensive Silicon?

(M.J. Stocks et al 2004)
Reduction in Si feedstock + crystal: a revolutionary approach: Sliver cell
49

Reduction in Si feedstock + crystal: a revolutionary approach: Sliver cell
50

Results for Sliver Cells:

Silicon consumption is 1-2 kg/kW-rated module
A factor of seven to ten less than for conventional silicon solar cells (assuming 300m thickness)
Sliver cells have a high efficiency potential (>22 per cent)
51
The efficiency gap!

12.3% for module
15% for single cells
Achieved (although it ought to be above 20%)
52
World record in efficiency in mass production:

Adapt Microelectronic production to lower cost! (after Mulligan et al, Sunpower)
53
The ultimate Question:

Our starting point was: CO2 production must be reduced Even if PV is competitive in Price, does it really save CO2? In other words: what is the CO2 amount used Or better even:
What is the pay-back period for CO2 for Photovoltaics ?
54

Depends on
Location Time
55

Location
2012: about 30% less
Epia & OECD
56

Location:
Epia & OECD
57

Time:
Pay back time will be halved within a decade or less
58
Development over the next 40 years

Non Si wafer cell fraction will increase Growth will be unprecedented for any industry
Epia
59
Development over the next 40 years

Categories of PV Cells:
Crystalline Cells (highest efficiency, durability 20 years proven)

Mono Crystalline Multi Crystalline
Thin Film Cells (large area, efficiency up to X2 lower, durability 20 years not proven yet)
Amorphous Microcrystalline Cu In Selenide (CIGS) CdTe (First Solar, highest volume and efficiencies)
Innovative concepts (cheap, low efficiency, questionable durability)

Organic electronics Dye sensitized electrics Printed electronics Nano based electronics

08 Photovoltaics

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07_Photovoltaics

Background Photovoltaic (PV) energy:

Cost is the only BIG issue

W. Bergholz GEE2 Spring 2012

PV Competitiveness (after W. Hoffmann, RWE Schott)

PV Competitiveness (after W. Hoffmann, RWE Schott):

available at peak power

W. Bergholz GEE2 Spring 2012

From the presentation of K.H. Ksters, Conergy

07_Photovoltaics PV share (after W. Hoffmann, RWE Schott): still very small!

W. Bergholz GEE2 Spring 2012

Update 2011: Germany 3% PV !!!!

W. Bergholz GEE2 Spring 2012

W. Bergholz GEE2 Spring 2012

From the presentation of K.H. Ksters, Conergy

people employed (2006, vs 2004 (grey))

From 157000 employed people in 2004 to 231000 in 2006

PV ca. 25000 (2006), Trend: strong increase of engineers in PV

W. Bergholz GEE2 Spring 2012

07_Photovoltaics Cost reduction follows a generic experiece curve (after W.

this is true for cars, airplanes, watches,....

W. Bergholz GEE2 Spring 2012

07_Photovoltaics Cost reduction follows a generic experiece curve (after W.

W. Bergholz GEE2 Spring 2012

07_Photovoltaics The analogous curve from a different source:

W. Bergholz GEE2 Spring 2012

From the presentation of K.H. Ksters, Conergy

Key levers to reduce price: material cost, production, h

W. Bergholz GEE2 Spring 2012

W. Bergholz GEE2 Spring 2012

W. Bergholz GEE2 Spring 2012

W. Bergholz GEE2 Spring 2012

W. Bergholz GEE2 Spring 2012

1954 1954 1958

W. Bergholz GEE2 Spring 2012

W. Bergholz GEE2 Spring 2012

Strong trend to thinner cells, 0.15 mm is the standard now

W. Bergholz GEE2 Spring 2012

approx. operating point here the

W. Bergholz GEE2 Spring 2012

W. Bergholz GEE2 Spring 2012

In a homogenously doped semiconductor, due to the balance between

the diffusive motion

W. Bergholz GEE2 Spring 2012

W. Bergholz GEE2 Spring 2012

W. Bergholz GEE2 Spring 2012

Note: the larger FF, the larger the efficiency

W. Bergholz GEE2 Spring 2012

W. Bergholz GEE2 Spring 2012

Rs consumes some of the voltage available to the load

W. Bergholz GEE2 Spring 2012

W. Bergholz GEE2 Spring 2012

Basics Typical Si wafer parameters

Max. theoretical efficiency: 28%

W. Bergholz GEE2 Spring 2012

Basics Typical Si wafer parameters

Sun spectrum below band gap not usable

W. Bergholz GEE2 Spring 2012

Basics Typical efficiencies of cells, module 2 % lower:

W. Bergholz GEE2 Spring 2012

From the presentation of K.H. Ksters, Conergy

W. Bergholz GEE2 Spring 2012

by E.Weber, ISE Freiburg

From the presentation of K.H. Ksters, Conergy