Methods of teaching different aspects of language

Nadja Mifka-Profozi, PhD Second Semester 2013 Wednesday 2pm 4 pm (March 20th)

Teaching vocabulary, morpho-syntax, phonology

Vocabulary and the curriculum

How many words to teach? Which words at the beginning? How to teach vocabulary? How is vocabulary learnt?

Importance of vocabulary learning

Extensive vocabulary is essential for communicative competence In the early stages of learning vocabulary seems to be more important than grammar (although older methods recommended paying more attention to grammar than to vocabulary) Vocabulary acquisition does not seem to be slowed down by age

Word counts, word lists

Is there a minimum number of words that one would need to know in order to be able to communicate? West (1960) published a list of 1200 words based on a frequency count of the 2000 most frequent words in English minimum adequate speech vocabulary. However, Fox (1979) argues that this vocabulary might be adequate for productive purposes, but they leave the learners under-equipped to deal with authentic language.

Word counts, word lists

A relatively small number of words account for a very large proportion of text. The 270 function word types (176 word families) such as one, a, the because, in, must, cover about 44% of the running words (tokens) found in most texts. These function words, however, make up a small proportion of the frequent words of English. The most frequent 2000 words include most of the function words

Academic word lists

The best researched list of academic vocabulary is the Academic Word List (Coxhead, 2000) which consistes of 570 word families arranged into ten sublists. The high frequency /low frequency distinction is an important one when planning a vocabulary programme. These two groups of words should be dealt with in different ways.

How should words be dealt with?

The high frequency words (2000+570) deserve classroom time. This is because of their high frequency and wide occurrence Low frequency words, on the other hand do not deserve classroom time. When learners know the high frequency words, they need to begin learning low frequency words. The teacher should spend time teaching the most useful strategies for learning these words.

Vocabulary and language strands

Learning

vocabulary through meaning-focused input: Listening and reading Learning vocabulary through meaning focused output Speaking and writing Learning through language focused study and teaching Developing fluency in listening

Major strategies for learning vocabulary (Paul Nation)

Guessing from context (e.g. using clues in written or spoken text to infer the meaning) Using word cards deliberately studying words and their translated meaning Using word part analysis (breaking complex words into prefix, root and suffix and using the meaning of the parts to help remember

the meaning) Using a dictionary

Best ideas to teach vocabulary

Apply principles of teaching and learning Approach high and low frequency words differently Use four strands teach words in context Implement an extensive reading programme Carefully design speaking and writing activities Use a variety of activities aimed at fluency development

Best ideas to teach vocabulary, cont.

Provide extended training and practice in guessing unknown vocabulary from context Teach students to use a mnemonic sysstem Train students to use word cards Teach the high frequency affixes of English (prefixes and suffixes) Encourage learner autonomy

More ideas
Set demanding vocabulary targets for your students Get the students to read something every day Get your students to write something every day Get students to review their vocabulary regulary

Listen to songs

Play word association games

Grammar acquisition
There is evidence that vocabulary and grammar are being learnt in a different way. L2 learners usually have to put some effort into vocabulary learning conscious learning. However, L2 acquisition of grammatical structures may occur without conscious control

Incidental learning processes

Exposure to natural communication in the target language is necessary for the unconscious processes to work well. Incidental learning: acquisition of grammar while learners are engaged with the meaning. The learner needs to comprehend the content of natural communication in the new language.

What do SLA theories say?

In spite of their different views, both nativist theories (UG-based) and environmental theories (usage based, constructivism, connectionism) hold that L2 grammar acquisition occurs incidentally, or implicitly, while learners are exposed to L2 Does frequency of input play a role? Does explicit teaching help acquisition? Explicit teaching can help raise awareness and speed up the learning processes, but acquisition orders are still followed

What does research say?

A meta-analysis (Norris & Ortega, 2000) of 49 primary studies on SLA, published between 1980 and 1998, provided evidence of the effectiveness of explicit grammar instruction on SLA. Findings suggest that the effectiveness of L2 instruction is durable. However, the results need to be interpreted with caution because the outcome measures (tests) are likely to affect the results (most of the tests

Grammatical consciousnessraising

Consciousness-raising approach can be realised in different ways Classroom activities - basically inductive rather than deductive Greater attention paid to form-function relationships Organic rather than linear view of learning Rutherford (1987) rejects the split between conscious learning and subconscious acquisition Sharwood-Smith (1988) draws attention to explicit and implicit knowledge

FOCUS ON FORMS

FOCUS-ON-FORM

Presentation making the structure through an input text in which the item appears Isolation and explanation Practice getting students to absorb and master the language Production/Test

Interaction Hypothesis Negotiation for meaning is complemented by the type of treatment which overtly draws students attention to linguistic elements as they arise incidentally in lessons whose overriding focus is on meaning or communication (Long, 1991).

How to approach grammar ?

Focus-on-form

Focus-on-form is restricted to meaningbased pedagogical activities where language is used as a tool for communication. It is clearly distinguished from focus-onformS, i. e. from instructional approaches treating language as object. Context, or the situations in which communication needs are clearly established, provide the natural environment for focus-on-form, noticing and possibly, noticing-the-gap.

Teaching phonology
Mastering of the sound system of a second language presents great difficulties for learners The Critical Period Hypothesis: Most learners who begin learning an L2 after the onset of puberty never manage to acquire native-like mastery of the sound system (although they may develop native-like skills in vocabulary)

Contrastive phonology
Powerful influence of the first language Attention needs to be paid to both phonetic and phonemic differences between the native and the target language Phonetic analysis compares the two languages in terms of the physical differences between their respective systems Phonemics contrasts the sound system of the languages in terms of their minimum meaningful units

Pronunciation in communicative approaches

With the development of communicative approaches to language teaching the major theoretical shift has occurred from segmental work to a focus on suprasegmental features of rhythm, stress and intonation. The shift has been to focus on the development of communicative effectiveness and intelligibility, rather than on then development of native-like pronunciation.

Factors affecting pronunciation learning

The native language The age factor Amount of exposure to L2 Phonetic ability (evidence that good discriminators can benefit from pronunciation drills) Attitude and identity Motivation and concern for good pronunciation

How to teach pronunciation?

Focus on longer-term goals The goals of an explicit training in pronunciation should be to bring learners gradually from controlled, cognitively based performance to automatic skill-based performance Gradually reduce the amount of native language Pronunciation should be taught as an integral part of oral language use Pronunciation forms a natural link to other aspects of language use (listening, vocabulary, grammar) teaching should explore their interdependence