Ecosystems and Global Ecology

Ch 58

ecosystem = system with both biotic and

abiotic components within a defined boundary.

Earth is a closed system with respect to matter, but an open system with respect to energy. Energy from the sun, and from radioactive decay that melts the magma in the Earths interior, drive the processes that move chemical elements around the planet.

Earth is diff from other planets;

Shifting lithospheric plates Atmosphere, liquid water and moderate surface temperatures allows for a huge diversity in life Living organisms, by virtue of their activities (and existence), impact physical nature of earth-- chemical composition of atmosphere, water, and land as well as the surface temps

Flux = rate at which energy or elements

move through a system

Pool = where elements accumulate

Sinks = pools in which element is taken out

of circulation

But most things cycle, or get re-cycled

Components of ecosystem get recycled

Water; Elements sa carbon; nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur in atmospheric gases have cycled repeatedly through living organisms

The physical environment can be divided into four compartments: Atmosphere, oceans, freshwaters, and land. The compartments and the types of organisms living in them are very different.

Atmosphere:
Water vapors A thin layer of gases surrounding the Earth
N2 O2 Ar CO2 78% 21% 1% 0.03%

CO2 is the source of carbon used by terrestrial plants and marine producers for photosynthesis

troposphere = lowest layer of

the atmosphere and contains 80 percent of the mass (water vapors + other gases)
Ultraviolet radiation

Most global air circulation occurs in troposphere

stratosphere extends out to

about 50 km. Most materials enter the stratosphere from the region of troposphere that encircles the equator.

A layer of ozone in the stratosphere absorbs most of the biologically damaging UV radiation from the sun.

Atmosphere, Functions
*Holds moisture *Warms the surface through heat retention--greenhouse effect reduces diurnal temperature extremes *Ozone layer blocks out harmful solar UV rays

Ozone (stratosphere)
Over the last several decades, the ozone layer has been seriously depleted by human activities Release of CFCs causes chemical reactions in the stratosphere that destroys ozone molecules UV radiation is associated with increased rates of skin cancer, cataract formation, and crop damage

The atmosphere helps regulate Earths temperature.

greenhouse gases-

H2O, CO2, methane, etc.

Transparent to sunlight, but trap heat radiating from Earths surface. Human activities are increasing the concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, which is making the planet warmer.

Oceans:
Oceans exchange materials with the atmosphere only at their surface, receive material from land in river runoff --mix slowly. Materials in the ocean compartment sink to the ocean floor and remain for a long time, until being uplifted by tectonic processes.

Oceans:
Upwelling zones occur where offshore winds push water away from shore.

Cold bottom water that moves up to replace it is nutrient-rich and supports high rates of phytoplankton productivity, which supports large consumer populations. Most fisheries are in upwelling zones.

Fresh waters:
Rivers, lakes, and groundwater (water in soils and rocks). Water moves rapidly through this compartment. Mineral nutrients enter fresh waters through weathering of rock, and are carried to lakes and oceans

Fresh waters:
Mineral nutrients in lakes are taken up by organisms and become part of their bodies.

On death, organisms sink to the bottom where microbial decomposition consumes O2 in the water. Simil to oceans
Surface waters of lakes become depleted in nutrients, bottom-water becomes depleted in O2. Turnover (mixing), reverses this process.

Turnover:
Wind can cause mixing in shallow waters Temperature: Water is most dense at 4C; in winter the coldest water is at the lakes surface.

Land:
Elements move slowly on land. Runoff can bring minerals from land, rocks to oceans.

The terrestrial compartment is connected to the atmospheric compartment by organisms that remove elements from the atmosphere, and also release elements to the atmosphere.

Solar energy
Drives ecosystem cycles enters ecosystems via photosynthesizers. These primary producers use some of the energy they assimilate for their own metabolism; the rest (net primary production) is available to consumers.

Different types of ecosystems have different rates of production

open oceans have a low rate of primary productivity, but they are vast, so contribute the greatest percentage of the total primary production.

relative productivity of ecosystem type

Proportion of ecosystems of total earths surface

total planetary production by ecosystem

Energy Production
*Terrestrial: moisture, temperatures reqrmnt
Primary production highest @ equator; warm temperatures, high moisture level all year long

*Aquatic: Production limited by light penetration, which decreases with depth of ocean water

Human activities modify energy flow

Converting forests to grassland and urban areas decreases net primary productivity; converting prairies to fields of corn and soybeans increases it. Humans consume about 24 % of Earths net primary production

biogeochemical cycles= movements of elements through organisms to physical environment and back again *water transfers many elements

hydrologic cycle = cycling of water through

the four compartments The sun powers the hydrologic cycle by causing evaporation from the ocean surfaces. More water is evaporated from the oceans than is returned by precipitation. The excess falls as precipitation on land.

hydrologic cycle
Water returns to the ocean via streams, surface runoff, and groundwater.
Residence time of water in freshwaters and living organisms is very short; in the oceans it is very long3,000 years.

Large amounts of groundwater are stored in pools called aquifers. The residence time is long, and it plays a small role in the hydrologic cycle.

hydrologic cycle
In the Northern Hemisphere, most groundwater was deposited during the most recent ice age, when regional precipitation was much greater than now. However, in some areas groundwater safe drinking water-- is being depleted with human consumption, irrigation

Carbon cycle:
All organisms contain carbon and their energy comes from carbon compounds Carbon also stored in plants, fossil fuels, soils, rocks, marine sediments, in ocean water

Carbon is removed from the atmosphere as 14,12CO and incorporated into organic molecules 2 by photosynthesisCarbon fixation
Carbon fixation requires a source of energy such as sunlight, and an electron donor i.e., water.

Carbon cycle
Organisms that grow by fixing carbon are autotrophs, producers. E.g, plants.

Organisms which grow by using the fixed carbon are heterotrophs (consumers) e.g., animals

Carbon cycle
Carbon is returned to atmosphere *by consumers (metabolism)

*Biomass burning-- accounts for 40% of Earths production of CO2

*Fires consume the energy stored in plant tissues and release the chemical elements -lightening -arson

-management of vegetation

Carbon cycle:
Some CO2 released by human activities remains in the atmosphere

Some carbon is stored by terrestrial vegetation-- photosynthetic

Some is stored in the ocean; *dissolved in the oceans, or *taken up by organisms in photosynthesis and shell production. Shells (CaCO3) sink to the ocean floor, removing carbon from surface waters.

Carbon cycle:
*CO2 diffuses into ocean and is stored in seawater as carbonate (CO32) or bicarbonate (HCO3). surface waters are becoming more acidic *Decreasing pH and increasing temperature cause bleaching (loss of symbiotic algae) and death of corals, leading to collapse of coral reef systems.

Carbon cycle:
CO2 is released into the atmosphere faster than it can be dissolved in oceans and taken up by organisms.

Atmospheric [CO2] is Increasing

Buildup of atmospheric CO2 is warming Earth

Strong negative correlation of [CO2] and glaciation [CO2] levels high in ice when temps were high CO2 accumulates in ozone (greenhouse gas), greenhouse gases increase earth temperatures global warming

Global warming -increases rates of metabolism- for plants and for soil organisms, whose respiration returns a great deal of CO2 to atmosphere. -affect distribution of species. E.g., *Increased outbreaks of
pests such as pine bark beetles, due to milder winters that dont kill off the beetles. *Dengue fever and its mosquito vector are now spreading to higher latitudes

Nitrogen cycle:
N2 gas makes up 78 percent of the atmosphere, but most organisms cant use N in this form. Nitrogen is an essential nutrient for DNA, RNA, ATP

Nitrogen cycle
Nitrogen fixation

*Some bacteria convert atmospheric N2 into a form usable by plants *Industrial fixation production of fertilizers *burning fossil fuels (generates N2O) *lightening
It is lost rapidly from ecosystems-vaporization (ammonia), denitrification

Effects of increased N fixation:

Excess fertilizers (N not taken up by crops) moves into groundwater or runoff and ends up in rivers, lakes, and oceans-- Eutrophication dead zone (e.g, run-off in the Mississippi River watershed Gulf of Mexico)

High Nitrogen levels promote algal growth; when these organisms die, their decomposition by microbes uses up the oxygen in the water.
The resulting anaerobic/hypoxic conditions kill most other marine organisms.
Hypoxia can reduce reproduction, levels of hormone, organ size, change gene expression levels

Climate impacts on dead zones

*In spring, 1. rainfall increases, more nutrient-rich water flows down the mouth of the Mississippi River- runoffs + 2. increasing temperature/sunlight algal growth in dead zones *In fall months, tropical storms enter the Gulf of Mexico and break up dead zones. cycle repeats next spring.

Effects of increased N fixation

eutrophication

contd

Increased atmospheric N2O, a greenhouse gas

N2O also contributes to the formation of smog and tropospheric ozone (bad ozone). global warming
Ultraviolet radiation

Sulfur cycle:
Emissions of SO2 and H2S from volcanoes and fumaroles are the nonmicrobial sources of S in the atmosphere Microbial decomposition in marine and terrestrial environments returns S to the atmosphere.

Sulfur cycle:
Many marine phytoplankton produce a sulfur compound that is broken down to dimethyl sulfide (CH3SCH3) major gas from ocean, ocean
smell

Dimethyl sulfide in the atmosphere forms particles around which water vapor condenses, forming clouds.

Burning fossil fuels contributes SO2 to the atmosphere, where it can form sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
Sulfuric and nitric acid (HNO3) form acid precipitation. Precipitation with pH less than 3.5 causes damage to plants. Acidification of lakes in the Adirondacks has reduced fish and aquatic insect species richness.

Phosphorus cycle:
*Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for DNA, RNA, ATP, and phospholipids.

*Lacks a gaseous phase. There is very little in the atmosphere (dust)

*Phosphorus cycles

rapidly in organisms,
but very slowly in Earths crust

Phosphorus cycle
laundry detergents were formulated with sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) Phosphorus is used to make artificial fertilizers Animal (human) wastes are high in P
P is now accumulating, especially in agricultural soils. Excess P moves into surface waters river, lake, ocean,
streams

Excess P entering lakes and rivers can cause eutrophication --stimulates the growth of algae. When the algae die, their decomposition by microbes consumes all of the oxygen in the lake Hypoxic conditions
Anaerobic organisms then dominate the bottom sediments

Some other elements (Fe, I, Co, se) are important as micronutrients

Iron (Fe) is required by almost all organisms. It is essential for many enzymes (e.g,. Photosynthetic), globins (e.g., hemoglobin)

Iron is readily available on land but it is largely insoluble in oxygenated waters, and rapidly sinks to the bottom

Photosynthesis in the ocean is often ironlimited.

 Iodine is essential for thyroid hormones Cobalt is essential for vitamin B12, protein synthesis, and for nitrogen fixation enzymes Selenium is a component of several enzymes

natural ecosystems goods and services

Goods-- food, clean water, clean air, fiber, building materials, fuel Services-- flood control, soil stabilization, pollination, climate regulation Aesthetic, psychological, spiritual, recreational benefits

These are not readily available/replaceable through technology

Why do we modify the ecosystems?

Increase production of some services, especially food, timber, fuel, etc.

Short-term increases in some goods and services have come at the cost of long-term degradation of others. Modifications have many positive effects on human health and prosperity, but it necessarily involves trade-offs.

Examples:
Extensive use of pesticides controls insect pests, but also reduces populations of pollinators Agriculture provides food and jobs; but can degrade soil and water; overuse of fertilizers results in eutrophication.

e.g., Katrina
Extraction of oil and gas required canals through wetlands of New Orleans for drilling rigs and pipelines, etc Elimination of coastal wetlands (buffers against flooding) damage dt Hurricane Katrina, in 2005

e.g., Dust bowl, great depression

Overcultivation and natural drought cycle led to soil erosion and dust clouds Dust pneumonia dust accumulation in lungs lethal (drowning in own blood)

Sustainable= practices that allows for

conservation so as to benefit from specific ecosystem goods and services over the long term, without compromising other services.

Very costly Requires government interventions/actions to provide incentives for sustainable practices