Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Structure Geology 2007

Folds

Dr.\ Mohammad O. Abu El-Reesh

Suez Canal University

omaradh@yahoo.com

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Folds are The End of Ductile deformation story

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Folds are The most spectacular of Earths structures

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Folds are Formed in all environments of Tectonism

Large Fold in the Himalaya Mountains, Tibet Large Fold in the Rocky Mountains, Canada

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Folds are Occurred as isolated folds or in extensive fold trains

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Folds are Best displayed by sedimentary rocks and volcanic rocks

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Folds may complied with other structural types (Thrust Fault)

Thrust Fault

Fold

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Folds are Commonly serve as collection sites for oil and gas

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Fold Attitudes (Strike and Dip)

Strike Dip

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Fold Anatomy (axial plane, fold axis, limbs and inflection point)

Inflection Point

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Axial Plane & Hinge Line

Horizontal Hinge Line Vertical Axial Plane Horizontal Hinge Line Inclined Axial Plane

Inclined Hinge Line Vertical Axial Plane

Horizontal Hinge Line Horizontal Axial Plane

Vertical Hinge Line Vertical Axial Plane

Inclined Hinge Line Inclined Axial Plane

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Fold Anatomy: Crestal Plane Trough plane

Crestal Plane

Crest

Axial Plane

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Nomenclature of Folds, Anticline and Syncline

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Nomenclature of Folds

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Fold Classification
Based on:

1) the orientation of the axial plane

2) the tilt (or dip) of the fold limbs

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Symmetrical Folds

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Asymmetrical Folds

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Overturned Folds

Structure Geology

Recumbent Folds

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Axial planes are almost horizontal typical in high grade metamorphic rock (gneisses)

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Recumbent Folds

Andes Mountains, South America

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Isoclinal Folds

Chevron Fold

Fan Fold

Box Fold

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Closed
& Tight

Folds

Drag Fold

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Plunging Folds

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Plunging Folds

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Doubly Plunging Fold

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Refolded isoclinal Fold

Refolded Axial plane

Structure Geology

Folds Wavelength

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Fold System

Major (Anticline& Syncline) is composed of many

Amplitude

smaller folds, this term is restricted to large folds that are at least several miles across. Geosyncline means earth syncline. It is a large depression, hundreds of miles long and tens of miles wide, in which many thousands or tens of thousands of feet of sediments accumulate. Geanticline is a broad uplift, comparable in size to a geosyncline. The wavelength of folds is the distance from one anticlinal hinge to the next anticlinal hinge. The amplitude of folds is the distance between a bed on an anticlinal hinge and the same bed in an adjacent synclinal hinge

Structure Geology

Mechanics of Folding

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Flexure

Shear

Flow

Flexure Folding: If a sheet is bent, the convex side is subjected to tension whereas the concave side is subjected to compression, The convex side will lengthen and thinned whereas the concave side will shorten and thicken. Tension Sliding

Shorten Thicken

Compression

Lengthen Thinned

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Shear folding also known as slip folding, results from minute displacement along closely spaced fractures.

Shear Folding

Such shear folds should always be accompanied by visible fractures, usually cleavage. In shear folding the beds are thinned but are never thicken.

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Causes of folding
Contraction Theory assumes been Tectonic that the interior of the earth has Non Tectonic progressively smaller throughout geologic time. This is due to (1)Compression cooling of the earth Horizontal (2) formation of denser minerals within the earth and Acts on one side, the other is (3) the extrusion of magma resistance rock and the of outer When thehence intensity the shell of the earth has been subjected to strong compressive forces compressive force diminishes Objections downward, the uppermost layers The theory fails explain the concentration of deformation moving more than the to lower in relatively narrow belts. layers, this causes asymmetry Plate Tectonics be explain this dilemma. and overturning of thewill folds

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Non Tectonic

Weathering Sliding

Recumbent

Folds by gravity sliding

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Attitude
Attitude refers to the orientation of various rock layers, contacts, faults, and other structures of interest.

The attitude of a given feature is given via 2 numbers: Strike & Dip (Plane), Trend & plunge (Line).

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Map Symbols
Strike and dip 30 Horizontal bed Vertical bed Anticline Syncline Plunging anticline Plunging syncline Fault, and dip of the fault plane Thrust fault

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Maps Symbols (continued)

Light solid line: depositional or igneous intrusive contact Dashed or dotted light line:
where contact is uncertain

Heavy solid line: fault Dashed or dotted heavy line:

where location of fault is uncertain

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Growth Fault Where the displacement Contemporaneous with the deposition

NW El-Wastani Fm. SE

Rollover Anticline

Kafr El-Sheikh Formation

Fault Plane

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Structure Geology

The Petroleum System

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Timing: no trapping unless the traps are present when migration is ccurring Maturation: no petroleum if the source rock OM does not mature
Migration: no accumulation if the petroleum doesnt migrate

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

There are three basic forms of a structural trap in petroleum geology Anticline Trap Fault Trap Salt Dome Trap The common link between these three is simple: some part of the earth has moved in the past, creating an impedence to oil flow. Anticline Trap An anticline is an example of rocks which were previously flat, but have been bent into an arch. Oil that finds its way into a reservoir rock that has been bent into an arch will flow to the crest of the arch, and get stuck (provided, of course, that there is a trap rock above the arch to seal the oil in place).

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Stratigraphic Trap

Stratigraphic traps are traps created by the limits of the reservoir rock itself, without any structural control.
Reef trap: a vertical slice (cross-section) through the reservoir and overlying rocks.

Stratigraphic traps are also formed in clastic rocks: two sandstone beds form traps within muddy coastal deposits. River channels may form long, thin traps corresponding to the former position of the river or delta distributary. Beach sands may form sheet-like bodies along an ancient shoreline etc.

Structure Geology

Structural Traps

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Structural traps are formed where the space for petroleum is limited by a structural feature

Tilted fault-block traps are formed where the upward flow of the petroleum is prevented by impermeability along the fault plane and by an overlying cap or seal.

Anticlinal traps are formed by folding in the rocks. Unconformity traps are generated where an erosional break in the stratigraphic succession is followed by impermeable strata.

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Fault Trap Fault traps are formed by movement of rock along a fault line. The reservoir rock has moved opposite a layer of impermeable rock which prevents the oil from escaping. The fault itself can be a very effective trap. Clays within the fault zone are smeared as the layers of rock slip past one another. This is known as fault gouge.

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

Structural Trap This type of structural trap is very common in fold-and-thrust belts. where older rocks are pushed sideways over younger rocks (e.g., the yellow unit is here pushed over the light-blue unit).

Oil is pooled in anticlinal folds. The traps may also be partly faulted, as in the upper one shown here.

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

A cross section showing typical Anticline Traps.

Reservoir rock that isn't completely filled with oil also contains large amounts of salt water .

Structure Geology

Folds

Dr.\ M. Omar Abu El-Reesh

A cross section of rock showing a fault trap.

example of gouge .This is because the reservoir rock on both sides of the fault would be connected.