Chapter 1: Fundamentals

Textbook chapter 3

Outline
Introduction to matter Properties of matter
Physical and chemical properties Extensive and intensive properties Temperature and density

Composition of the atom

Atomic model Atomic mass Isotopes

The periodic table and periodicity of elements properties Naming molecular and ionic substances The mole and molar mass 2 Percent composition

Introduction to Matter
Physical material of the universe Anything that occupies space and has mass Exists in three physical states (solid, liquid, gas) Matter is made up of atoms
Sodium Metal Chlorine Gas

Atom: Basic unit of any chemical element Element: substance made up of atoms of the same kind (same atomic number)
Represented by symbols of 1 or 2 letters (Co, Cu, H, O, ) To date: 118 elements (periodic table) Allotropes are two or more distinct forms of an element (O, O2, O3)3

Introduction to Matter
Compound: substance made up of atoms of 2 or more elements chemically united (H2O, CO2, NaCl, )

Substance: a form of matter (element or compound) having a fixed composition and distinct identity (water, iron, glucose, )

Mixture: Combination of 2 or more substances (tea, salted water, vinegar, mixture of sand + iron filling, air, ) Homogenous mixture (or solution): composition is uniform throughout the sample (salted water, tea ) Heterogeneous mixture: composition is not uniform throughout the sample (sand + iron filling, water + sand, )
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Chemistry
Study of elements composing matter and the changes they undergo
(Composition, Characteristics, Reactions)
Sodium Metal
Sodium Reacting with Chlorine

Chlorine Gas

Crystals of Sodium Chloride

Chemists Interact with Others

Physical and Chemical Properties of matter

Physical property:
Can be measured without changing the identity
color, melting point, boiling point, optical density.

Chemical property (reactivity):

Describes the way a substance may change into another CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O

Extensive and intensive properties

Extensive property: Is additive depends on the amount of matter
mass, volume, length,

Intensive property: Not additive does not depend on the amount of matter
density, concentration, pressure, viscosity, melting point,

Temperature
A measure of the motion of particles in a system Three systems for measuring the temperature:

The Celsius scale (oC):

under 1 atm: zero is the freezing point and 100 is the boiling point of water

The Kelvin scale (K):

Zero is the lowest temperature that can be attained theoretically = - 273.15oC

Tk = TC + 273.15 Celsius and Kelvin scales have the same degree size but differ in the zero point.

Remark:The Fahreinheit scale: under 1 atm:

32 is freezing point of water; 212: boiling point of water (TF = (TC x 9/5) + 32) Used in engineering sciences Differs from the Celsius and Kelvin scale in the zero point and in the degree size

Density
The mass of a substance per unit of volume of the substance: d = m/V Unit: g/cm3 or (g/L for gases)

Remark: The mass of an object is measured by comparing it to a standard mass of 1 kg, which is the basic SI unit for mass. 1 kg is the mass of I liter of water at 4oC. The weight is a measure of the gravitational force (pull) on a given mass by the gravity.

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Atoms
Atomos = Indivisible Definition: the smallest particle of an element that retains the properties of that element

Modern theory assumptions of the atom (John Dalton, in 1803)

1. Matter is made up of atoms that are indivisible and indestructible 2. All atoms of a given element are identical 3. Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole numbers to form compounds 4. Atoms of different elements have different weights and different chemical properties 5. Atoms cannot be created nor destroyed. When a compound 11 decomposes, the atoms are recovered unchanged

Composition of the atom

An atom is composed of a nucleus (protons + neutrons) surrounded by an electronic cloud

Representation of atoms: A ------> mass number (nb of p+ + nb of no)

X
Z ------> atomic number (nb of p+)
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Alpha-Particle Bombardment

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Isotopes
Isotopes: atoms of a given element having the same Z but different A Differ in the number of neutrons e.g.: C-12 and C-13 ; H-1, H-2 and H-3

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Atomic Mass
Based on the mass of carbon: carbon-12 (the most common isotope of carbon) C-12 is assigned a mass of exactly 12 atomic mass units (amu)

Masses of other atoms are given relative to C-12 Relative Atomic masses
Relative atomic masses are easily calculated by mass spectrometry.

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Mass Spectrometry

Finding the mass of an element: From mass spectrometery: mass of 13C / mass of 12C = 1.0836129

So the mass of a 13C atom is: (1.0836129) (12 amu) = 13.003355 amu

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Average Atomic Mass

Elements occur in nature as mixtures of isotopes Atomic mass is based on the relative abundance of isotopes E.g.: carbon in nature: 98.89% 12C, 1.11% 13C and

<0.01% 14C (negligable)

Average atomic mass of natural carbon = (98.89 /100x 12 amu) + (1.11/100 x 13.003 amu) = 12.01 amu The average atomic mass is often called the atomic weight
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Isotopic Composition of Ne
20Ne

= 0.907 = 0.003

21Ne

22Ne

= 0.09

The mass spectrum of neon

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Exercise
Calculate the average atomic weight of Boron (B) from the following data:

Isotope
10B 11B

Isotopic mass (amu) 10.013 11.009

Fractional abundance 0.1978 0.8022

10B 11B

= 10.013 x 0.1978 = 1.9806 = 11.009 x 0.8022 = 8.8314 10.812 amu

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Exercise

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The Periodic Table

Matter elements were classified according to their chemical behavior

This effort resulted in the development of the Periodic Table (1869) Where, Elements with similar properties fall within the same column called group or family The horizontal rows within the periodic table are called period
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Z increases

Z increases
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Periodicity of Elements Properties

Within a group Elements show similar chemical and physical properties

Example: Li, Na, and K are all soft, very reactive metals He, Ne, and Ar are very non-reactive gasses AND Each of the soft reactive metals comes immediately after one of the nonreactive gases
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Major Groups of the Periodic Table

Group
1A 2A 6A 7A 8A

Name

Elements

Properties
Monovalent cations Divalent cations Divalent anions Monovalent anions Inert

Alkali metals (wood ashes) Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr Alkaline earth metals Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra

Chalcogens ("chalk formers") O, S, Se, Te, Po Halogens ("salt formers") F, Cl, Br, I, At

Noble gases (rare gases) He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn

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The Three Categories of the Periodic Table

Metals (everything on the left of the Al - Po diagonal): Good conductor of electricity and heat Ductile and malleable Lustrous Solid at room temperature Non-metals (to the right of the Al Po diagonal): Poor conductor of electricity and heat Not ductile nor malleable Non-lustrous Metalloides (elements found along the Al Po diagonal: (Al, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te, Po, At): Have properties of both metals and nonmetals 25

Molecules (Molecular Substances)

Neutral aggregates of at least two atoms Can be diatomic (H2, N2, O2, Cl2, Br2, I2, CO, HCl) Or Polyatomic (H2O, CH4, N2O4, C6H12O6). Molecular formula shows the exact number of atoms of each element in the molecule

Empirical formula the simplest whole number ratio of atoms

Examples: Substance Water Hexane Glucose Ammonia

Molecular formula H2O C6H14 C6H12O6 NH3

Empirical formula H2O C3H7 CH2O NH3

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Molecules are usually composed of nonmetallic elements

Naming Molecular Formula

First word: name of the first element with a Greek prefix to denote the number of atoms

Second word: Name of the second element with a Greek prefix for the number of atom and the suffix -ide attached
The prefixes are: di: 2 - tri: 3 - tetra: 4 - penta: 5 - hexa: 6 - hepta: 7 - octa: 8 nona: 9 - deca 10 Examples: PCl5 : phosphorus pentachloride ; N2O4: dinitrogen tetroxide ; Cl2O7: dichlorine heptoxide; N2H4: dinitrogen tetrahydride Common exceptions: CH4: methane; NH3: ammonia; H2O: water ; H2S: hydrogen sulfide
Others : B2H6: diborane ; SiH4: silane
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Ions
Atoms or groups of atoms that have a positive or negative charge Examples: Monoatomic ions: Cl-, Na+, Mg2+ Polyatomic ions : OH-, SO42-, NH4+

Positively charged cations Negatively charged anions With very few exceptions: metallic elements cations Nonmetallic elements anions
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Sodium Atom and Ion

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Chlorine Atom and Ion

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Naming Monoatomic Ions

Monoatomic cations: Elements of groups 1A and 2A One ionic form (Type I): The name of the ion is the same as the name of the metal
E.g.: Na+ is sodium ion

Transition Metals More than one ionic form (Type II) use Roman numeral.
Fe2+ is iron(II) or Ferrous ion Fe3+ is iron(III) or Ferric ion

Monoatomic anions: Add the suffix ide to the stem

E.g.: N3-: nitride ; O2-; oxide ; Cl-: chloride
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Naming Polyatomic Ions

Ions of nonmetals and oxygen:
1- If a nonmetal forms two possible anions with oxygen, the one with the largest number of oxygen has the suffix -ate attached to the root of the nonmetal. The one with the fewer number of oxygen atoms has the suffix -ite SO42- is the sulfate ion PO43- is the phosphate ion SO32- is the sulfite ion PO33- is the phosphite ion

2- If the nonmetal forms more than two, the prefix per- is attached to the ion with the most oxygens, the prefix hypo- to the one with the fewest

ClO4- is the perchlorate ion ClO3- is the chlorate ion ClO2- is the chlorite ion ClO- is the hypochlorite ion
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Other Common Polyatomic Ions

OH-: hydroxide CN-; cyanide SCN-: thiocyanate C2H3O2-: acetate CrO42-: chromate Cr2O72-: dichromate MnO4-: permanganate NH4+ : Ammonium Example: What are the names of the NO3- and NO2- ions? Solution: Here we have two ions that have a nonmetal (N) and oxygen. We use the root of the nonmetal, nitrogen to get nitr-, then attach a -ate to the one with the most oxygens and a -ite to the one with the fewest NO3-: nitrate NO2-: nitrite
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Ionic Compounds
Made of cations and anions attracted to each other

Ions in pure ionic compounds have an organized three dimensional arrangement (a crystal) described using empirical formulas of formula unit The charges on the ions must balance
CaCl2: 1 calcium ion with +2 charge and 2 chloride ions with a -1 charge Al2(SO4)3: 2 aluminum ions with a +3 charge and 3 sulfate ions with -2 charge
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Naming Ionic Compounds

E.g.: CuO: Copper (II) oxide or Cu2O: Copper (I) oxide or

E.g.: NaCl : Sodium Chloride NaNO2: Sodium Nitrite

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Naming Acids
Acids are molecules that contain dissociable hydrogen atom
(e.g., HCl, HBr, and HCN) Acids are named by adding the prefix hydro- to the name of the compound and then replacing the suffix -ide with ic
Hydrogen chloride (HCl) Hydrochloric acid Hydrogen bromide (HBr) Hydrobromic acid Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) Hydrocyanic acid

Many of the oxygen-rich polyatomic negative ions form acids that are named by replacing the suffix -ate with -ic and the suffix -ite with -ous
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Acids containing ions ending with -ide often become hydro -ic acid F- (fluoride) => HF hydrofluoric acid S2- (sulfide) => H2S hydrosulfuric acid Acids containing ions ending with -ate usually become -ic acid CH3CO2- (acetate) => CH3CO2H acetic acid CO32(carbonate) => H2CO3 carbonic acid BO33(borate) => H3BO3 boric acid NO3(nitrate) => HNO3 nitric acid SO42(sulfate) => H2SO4 sulfuric acid ClO4(perchlorate) => HClO4 perchloric acid PO43(phosphate) => H3PO4 phosphoric acid MnO4- (permanganate) => HMnO4 permanganic acid CrO42- (chromate) => H2CrO4 chromic acid ClO3(chlorate) => HClO3 chloric acid Acids containing ions ending with -ite usually become -ous acid ClO2(chlorite) => HClO2 NO2(nitrite) => HNO2 SO32(sulfite) => H2SO3

chlorous acid nitrous acid sulfurous acid

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The Mole
Relates the atomic mass to a unit of gram for lab purposes The number of carbon atoms in exactly 12 grams of pure 12C Modern techniques have been used to define this number as 6.02214199 x 1023 This is called Avogadros number (NA) 1 gram = 6.022 1023 amu Molar mass = Mass (in grams) of 1 mole
= atomic mass (amu) x 6.022 1023 x 1g/ 6.022 1023 amu Numerically equivalent to atomic mass
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Molar masses of some substances

Just like 1 dozen eggs is 12 eggs 1 mole of Copper is 63.5 grams and 6.022 x 1023 atoms

Element Aluminium Gold Iron Sulfur Boron Xenon

Number of Atoms 6.02214199 x 1023 6.02214199 x 1023 6.02214199 x 1023 6.02214199 x 1023 6.02214199 x 1023 6.02214199 x 1023

Mass of Sample (g) 26.98 196.97 55.85 32.07 10.81 131.30

Comparison of 1 mole samples of various elements

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Molar Mass of Compounds

A substances molar mass (or molecular weight) is the mass in grams of one mole of the compound
Molar mass of CO2? 1C 2 O: 2 x 16.00 CO2 = 44.01 grams per mole = 12.01 = 32.00

Molar mass of Al2(SO4)3? 2 mol Al x 26.98 g/mol = 53.96 g Al 3 mol S x 32.07 g/mol = 96.21 g S 12 mol O x 16.00 g/mol = 192.00 g O Mass of 1 mol of Al2(SO4)3= 342.17 g
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C8H17OH

HgI2

S8 CH3OH

One mole each of various substances

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Exercise
What amount (moles) is represented by each of these samples? a) 20.0 mg caffeine, C8H10N4O2. b) 2.72 x 1021 molecules of ethanol, C2H5OH. c) 1.50 g of dry ice, CO2.

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Percent Composition
Percent composition: Percentage by mass contributed by each element in a substance. Shows how many grams of each element exist in 100 g of a compound

Mass percent of an element:

Mass% =
mass of element in compound x 100% mass of compound

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Percent Composition
For iron in iron (III) oxide, (Fe2O3) Molar mass of Fe2O3 = 159.69 g

Mass of Fe = 2 mol x 55.85 g/mol = 111.7 g

Mass % Fe = 111.7

159.69

x 100% = 69.95%

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Percent Composition
Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate, commonly called bicarbonate of soda, is used in many commercial products (antacids). It has the chemical formula NaHCO3. What are the mass percents of Na, H, C, and O.

Mass of Na = 1 mol x 22.99 g/mol = 22.99 g Na Mass of H = 1 mol x 1.008 g/mol = 1.008 g H Mass of C = 1 mol x 12.01 g/mol = 12.01 g C Mass of O = 3 mol x 16.00 g/mol = 48.00 g O 84.01 g NaHCO3 Mass % Na: 22.99g/84.01g x 100% = 27.36% Mass % H: 1.008g/84.01g x 100 % = 1.200% Mass % C: 12.01g/84.01g x 100% = 14.30% Mass % O: 48.00g/84.01g x 100% = 57.14%
27.36% + 1.200% + 14.30% + 57.14% = 100%

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