Introduction to Data Mining and

Warehousing

Chapter 1. Introduction
Motivation: Why data mining?

What is data mining?

Data Mining: On what kind of data? Data mining functionality Classification of data mining systems Major issues in data mining

Challenges of data mining

March 25, 2013

Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques

Why Data Mining?

The Explosive Growth of Data: from terabytes to petabytes Data collection and data availability

Automated data collection tools, database systems, Web,

computerized society Major sources of abundant data Business: Web, e-commerce, transactions, stocks, Science: Remote sensing, bioinformatics, scientific simulation, Society and everyone: news, digital cameras, YouTube

We are drowning in data, but starving for knowledge!

Necessity is the mother of inventionData miningAutomated analysis of massive data sets
March 25, 2013 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 3

Why Data Mining

Credit ratings/targeted marketing:
Given a database of 100,000 names, which persons are the least likely to default on their credit cards?
Identify likely responders to sales promotions

Fraud detection
Which types of transactions are likely to be fraudulent, given the demographics and transactional history of a particular customer?

Customer relationship management:

Which of my customers are likely to be the most loyal, and which are most likely to leave for a competitor? :

Data Mining helps extract such information

Motivation:
Necessity is the Mother of Invention
The Explosive Growth of Data: from terabytes to petabytes Data explosion problem

Automated data collection tools and mature database technology

lead to tremendous amounts of data stored in databases, data warehouses and other information repositories

We are drowning in data, but starving for knowledge!

Solution: Data warehousing and data mining Data mining

Automated analysis of massive data sets

Data warehousing and on-line analytical processing Extraction of interesting knowledge (rules, regularities, patterns, constraints) from data in large databases

Why Mine Data? Commercial Viewpoint

Lots of data is being collected and warehoused
Web data, e-commerce purchases at department/ grocery stores Bank/Credit Card transactions

Computers have become cheaper and more powerful Competitive Pressure is Strong
Provide better, customized services for an edge (e.g. in Customer Relationship Management)

Why Mine Data? Scientific Viewpoint

Data collected and stored at enormous speeds (GB/hour)
remote sensors on a satellite telescopes scanning the skies microarrays generating gene expression data scientific simulations generating terabytes of data

Traditional techniques infeasible for raw data Data mining may help scientists
in classifying and segmenting data in Hypothesis Formation

Data mining
Process of semi-automatically analyzing large databases to find patterns that are:
valid: hold on new data with some certainity novel: non-obvious to the system useful: should be possible to act on the item understandable: humans should be able to interpret the pattern

Also known as Knowledge Discovery in Databases (KDD)

What Is Data Mining?

Data mining (knowledge discovery in databases):
Extraction of interesting (non-trivial, implicit, previously unknown and potentially useful) information or patterns from data in large databases

Alternative names and their inside stories:

Data mining: a misnomer? Knowledge discovery(mining) in databases (KDD), knowledge extraction, data/pattern analysis, data archeology, business intelligence, etc.

Data Mining
Technologies for analysis of data and discovery of (very) hidden patterns Uses a combination of statistics, probability analysis and database technologies Fairly young (<20 years old) but clever algorithms developed through database research

DATA MINING
Data mining is the process of discovering interesting patterns and knowledge from large amounts of data. The data sources can include databases, data warehouse or the web.

What does Data Mining Do?

Explores Your Data

Finds Patterns

Performs Predictions

What is Data Mining?

Many Definitions
Non-trivial extraction of implicit, previously unknown and potentially useful information from data Exploration & analysis, by automatic or semi-automatic means, of large quantities of data in order to discover meaningful patterns

Origins of Data Mining

Draws ideas from machine learning/AI, pattern recognition, statistics, and database systems Traditional Techniques Statistics/ Machine Learning/ Pattern may be unsuitable due to AI Recognition
Enormity of data High dimensionality of data Heterogeneous, distributed nature of data
Data Mining

Database systems

Evolution of Sciences
Before 1600, empirical science 1600-1950s, theoretical science Each discipline has grown a theoretical component. Theoretical models often motivate experiments and generalize our understanding. 1950s-1990s, computational science Over the last 50 years, most disciplines have grown a third, computational branch (e.g. empirical, theoretical, and computational ecology, or physics, or linguistics.) Computational Science traditionally meant simulation. It grew out of our inability to find closed-form solutions for complex mathematical models. 1990-now, data science The flood of data from new scientific instruments and simulations The ability to economically store and manage petabytes of data online

The Internet and computing Grid that makes all these archives universally accessible
Scientific info. management, acquisition, organization, query, and visualization tasks scale almost linearly with data volumes. Data mining is a major new challenge!
March 25, 2013 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 15

Evolution of Database Technology

1960s:
Data collection, database creation, IMS and network DBMS

1970s:
Relational data model, relational DBMS implementation

1980s:
RDBMS, advanced data models (extended-relational, OO, deductive, etc.) Application-oriented DBMS (spatial, scientific, engineering, etc.)

1990s:
Data mining, data warehousing, multimedia databases, and Web databases

2000s
Stream data management and mining Data mining and its applications
March 25, 2013 Mining: Concepts and 16 Web technology (XML,Data data integration) and global information systems Techniques

Why Not Traditional Data Analysis?

Tremendous amount of data Algorithms must be highly scalable to handle such as tera-bytes of data High-dimensionality of data Micro-array may have tens of thousands of dimensions High complexity of data Data streams and sensor data Time-series data, temporal data, sequence data Structure data, graphs, social networks and multi-linked data Heterogeneous databases and legacy databases Spatial, spatiotemporal, multimedia, text and Web data Software programs, scientific simulations New and sophisticated applications
March 25, 2013 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 17

Examples: What is (not) Data Mining?

What is not Data What is Data Mining?

Mining?

Look up phone
number in phone directory

Certain names are more

prevalent in certain US locations (OBrien, ORurke, OReilly in Boston area) Group together similar documents returned by search engine according to their context (e.g. Amazon rainforest, Amazon.com,)

Query a Web
search engine for information about Amazon

Data Mining: A KDD Process

Pattern Evaluation

Data mining: the core of knowledge discovery Data Mining process.

Task-relevant Data
Data Selection Data Preprocessing

Data Warehouse
Data Cleaning Data Integration

Databases

Steps of a KDD Process

Learning the application domain:
relevant prior knowledge and goals of application

Creating a target data set: data selection Data cleaning and preprocessing: (may take 60% of effort!) Data reduction and transformation:
Find useful features, dimensionality/variable reduction, invariant representation.

Choosing functions of data mining

summarization, classification, regression, association, clustering.

Choosing the mining algorithm(s) Data mining: search for patterns of interest Pattern evaluation and knowledge presentation
visualization, transformation, removing redundant patterns, etc.

Use of discovered knowledge

Description of each phase

Data Cleaning: To remove noise and inconsistent data. Data Integration: where multiple data sources may be combined. Data selection: where data relevant to the analysis task are retrieved from the database. Data transformation: Where data are transformed and consolidated in to forms appropriate for mining by performing summary or aggregation operations.

Contd
Data Mining: An essential process where intelligent methods are applied to extract data patterns. Pattern Evaluation: To identify the truly interesting patterns representing knowledge based on interestingness measures. Knowledge presentation: Where visualization and knowledge representation techniques are used to present mined knowledge to users.

 Data mining is the process of discovering interesting patterns and knowledge from large amounts of data. The data sources can include databases, data warehouse or the web.

Data Mining and Business Intelligence

Increasing potential to support business decisions End User

Making Decisions
Data Presentation Visualization Techniques Data Mining Information Discovery Data Exploration Statistical Analysis, Querying and Reporting

Business Analyst Data Analyst

Data Warehouses / Data Marts OLAP, MDA Data Sources Paper, Files, Information Providers, Database Systems, OLTP

DBA

Data Mining: Confluence of Multiple Disciplines

Database Technology Statistics

Machine Learning

Data Mining

Visualization

Information Science

Other Disciplines

Statistics
Statistics studies the collection, analysis, interpretation and presentation of data. A statistical model is a set of mathematical functions that describe the behavior of the objects in a target class in terms of random variables and their associated probability distribution.

Machine Learning
It investigates how computers can learn based on data. Supervised learning : classification Unsupervised learning: clustering Active learning: user interactive

Data Mining: On What Kind of Data?

Relational databases Data warehouses Transactional databases Advanced DB and information repositories
Object-oriented and object-relational databases Spatial databases Time-series data and temporal data Text databases and multimedia databases Heterogeneous and legacy databases WWW

Relational databases
Relational databases: It is a collection of tables, each of which is assigned a unique name. Each table consists of a set of attributes and usually stores a large set of tuples. A semantic data model such as entity-relationship (ER) data model, is often constructed for relational data bases.

Data Warehouses
Data Warehouses: A data warehouse is a repository of information collected from multiple sources, stored under a unified schema, and usually residing at a single site.
Data warehouses are constructed via a process of data cleaning, data integration, data transformation, data loading, and periodic data refreshing. A data warehouse is usually modeled by a multi dimensional data structure, known as data cube, in which each dimension corresponds to an attribute or a set of attributes in the schema, and each cell stores the value of some aggregate measure such as count or sum. A data cube provides a multidimensional view of data and allows the pre computation and fast access of summarized data.

Transactional Data
Transactional Data: A transactional database captures a transaction, such as customers purchase, flight booking etc. A transaction typically includes transaction id and a list of items making up the transaction. A transactional database may have additional tables which contains other information related to the transaction.

Classification of data mining systems

DM systems can be classified according to various criteria: 1. kinds of databases mined: a DM system can be classified according to the kinds of databases mined. 2. kinds of knowledge mined: i.e. based on DM functionalities such as association, classification, corelation. 3. kinds of techniques utilized: degree of user interaction involved. 4. application adapted: finance, DNA, Stock exchange etc.

Multi-Dimensional View or Decisions of Data Mining

Data to be mined Relational, data warehouse, transactional, stream, objectoriented/relational, active, spatial, time-series, text, multi-media, heterogeneous, legacy, WWW Knowledge to be mined Characterization, discrimination, association, classification, clustering, trend/deviation, outlier analysis, etc. Multiple/integrated functions and mining at multiple levels Techniques utilized Database-oriented, data warehouse (OLAP), machine learning, statistics, visualization, etc. Applications adapted Retail, telecommunication, banking, fraud analysis, bio-data mining, stock market analysis, text mining, Web mining, etc.
March 25, 2013 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 33

Data Mining Tasks

Prediction Tasks
Use some variables to predict unknown or future values of other variables

Description Tasks
Find human-interpretable patterns that describe the data.

Common data mining tasks

Classification [Predictive] Clustering [Descriptive] Association Rule Discovery [Descriptive] Sequential Pattern Discovery [Descriptive] Regression [Predictive] Deviation Detection [Predictive]

Classification: Definition
Given a collection of records (training set )
Each record contains a set of attributes, one of the attributes is the class.

Find a model for class attribute as a function of the values of other attributes. Goal: previously unseen records should be assigned a class as accurately as possible.
A test set is used to determine the accuracy of the model. Usually, the given data set is divided into training and test sets, with training set used to build the model and test set used to validate it.

Classification Example

Tid Refund Marital Status 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

10

Taxable Income Cheat 125K 100K 70K 120K No No No No Yes No

10

Refund Marital Status No Yes No Yes No No Single Married Married

Taxable Income Cheat 75K 50K 150K ? ? ? ? ? ?

Yes No No Yes No No Yes No No No

Single Married Single Married

Divorced 90K Single Married 40K 80K

Divorced 95K Married 60K

Divorced 220K Single Married Single 85K 75K 90K

No Yes No Yes

Test Set

Training Set

Learn Classifier

Model

Classification: Application 1
Direct Marketing
Goal: Reduce cost of mailing by targeting a set of consumers likely to buy a new cell-phone product. Approach:
Use the data for a similar product introduced before. We know which customers decided to buy and which decided otherwise. This {buy, dont buy} decision forms the class attribute. Collect various demographic, lifestyle, and companyinteraction related information about all such customers.
Type of business, where they stay, how much they earn, etc.

Use this information as input attributes to learn a classifier model.

Classification: Application 2
Fraud Detection
Goal: Predict fraudulent cases in credit card transactions. Approach:
Use credit card transactions and the information on its account-holder as attributes.
When does a customer buy, what does he buy, how often he pays on time, etc

Label past transactions as fraud or fair transactions. This forms the class attribute. Learn a model for the class of the transactions. Use this model to detect fraud by observing credit card transactions on an account.

Classification: Application 3
Customer Attrition/Churn:
Goal: To predict whether a customer is likely to be lost to a competitor. Approach:
Use detailed record of transactions with each of the past and present customers, to find attributes.
How often the customer calls, where he calls, what time-of-the day he calls most, his financial status, marital status, etc.

Label the customers as loyal or disloyal. Find a model for loyalty.

Classification: Application 4
Sky Survey Cataloging
Goal: To predict class (star or galaxy) of sky objects, especially visually faint ones, based on the telescopic survey images (from Palomar Observatory).
3000 images with 23,040 x 23,040 pixels per image.

Approach:
Segment the image. Measure image attributes (features) - 40 of them per object. Model the class based on these features. Success Story: Could find 16 new high red-shift quasars, some of the farthest objects that are difficult to find!

Classifying Galaxies
Early Class:
Stages of Formation

Attributes:

Image features, Characteristics of light waves received, etc.

Intermediate

Late

Data Size:

72 million stars, 20 million galaxies Object Catalog: 9 GB Image Database: 150 GB

Clustering Definition
Given a set of data points, each having a set of attributes, and a similarity measure among them, find clusters such that
Data points in one cluster are more similar to one another. Data points in separate clusters are less similar to one another.

Similarity Measures:
Euclidean Distance if attributes are continuous. Other Problem-specific Measures.

Illustrating Clustering
Euclidean Distance Based Clustering in 3-D space.

Intracluster distances are minimized

Intercluster distances are maximized

Clustering: Application 1
Market Segmentation:
Goal: subdivide a market into distinct subsets of customers where any subset may conceivably be selected as a market target to be reached with a distinct marketing mix. Approach:
Collect different attributes of customers based on their geographical and lifestyle related information. Find clusters of similar customers. Measure the clustering quality by observing buying patterns of customers in same cluster vs. those from different clusters.

Clustering: Application 2
Document Clustering:
Goal: To find groups of documents that are similar to each other based on the important terms appearing in them. Approach: To identify frequently occurring terms in each document. Form a similarity measure based on the frequencies of different terms. Use it to cluster. Gain: Information Retrieval can utilize the clusters to relate a new document or search term to clustered documents.

Association Rule Discovery: Definition

Given a set of records each of which contain some number of items from a given collection;
Produce dependency rules which will predict occurrence of an item based on occurrences of other items.

TID

Items

1 2 3 4 5

Bread, Coke, Milk Beer, Bread Beer, Coke, Diaper, Milk Beer, Bread, Diaper, Milk Coke, Diaper, Milk

Rules Discovered:
{Milk} --> {Coke} {Diaper, Milk} --> {Beer}

Association Rule Discovery: Application 1

Marketing and Sales Promotion:
Let the rule discovered be {Bagels, } --> {Potato Chips} Potato Chips as consequent => Can be used to determine what should be done to boost its sales. Bagels in the antecedent => Can be used to see which products would be affected if the store discontinues selling bagels. Bagels in antecedent and Potato chips in consequent => Can be used to see what products should be sold with Bagels to promote sale of Potato chips!

Association Rule Discovery: Application 2

Supermarket shelf management.
Goal: To identify items that are bought together by sufficiently many customers. Approach: Process the point-of-sale data collected with barcode scanners to find dependencies among items. A classic rule - If a customer buys diaper and milk, then he is very likely to buy beer:

The Sad Truth About Diapers and Beer

So, dont be surprised if you find six-packs stacked next to diapers!

Sequential Pattern Discovery: Definition

Given is a set of objects, with each object associated with its own timeline of events, find rules that predict strong sequential dependencies among different events:
In telecommunications alarm logs,
(Inverter_Problem Excessive_Line_Current) (Rectifier_Alarm) --> (Fire_Alarm)

In point-of-sale transaction sequences,

Computer Bookstore: (Intro_To_Visual_C) (C++_Primer) --> (Perl_for_dummies,Tcl_Tk) Athletic Apparel Store: (Shoes) (Racket, Racketball) --> (Sports_Jacket)

Regression
Predict a value of a given continuous valued variable based on the values of other variables, assuming a linear or nonlinear model of dependency. Greatly studied in statistics, neural network fields. Examples:
Predicting sales amounts of new product based on advertising expenditure. Predicting wind velocities as a function of temperature, humidity, air pressure, etc. Time series prediction of stock market indices.

Deviation/Anomaly Detection
Detect significant deviations from normal behavior Applications:
Credit Card Fraud Detection

Network Intrusion Detection

Data Mining Task Primitives

A Data mining task can be specified in the form of Data mining query, which is i/p to a DM system. Data mining query defined in terms of data mining task primitives. Primitive allow the user to interactively communicate with the data mining system during discovery in order to direct or examine the mining process.

Data mining primitives specifies the following things:

The set of task-relevant data to be mined: this specifies the portions of the database in which the user is interested. The kind of knowledge to be mined: this specifies the data mining functions to be performed, such as association, correlation, clustering. The back ground knowledge to be used in the discovery process: this knowledge about the domain to be mined is useful for guiding the knowledge discovery process and for evaluating the patterns found.

Data Mining Task Primitives

The interestingness measures and thresholds for pattern evaluation: they may be used to guide the mining process or after discovery to evaluate the discovered patterns. The expected representation for visualizing the discovered patterns: This refers to the form in which discovered patterns are to be displayed, this may include rules, tables, charts, graphs, decision trees, and cubes.

Data Mining Task Primitives

A data mining query language can be designed to incorporate these primitives, allowing users to flexibly interact with data mining systems. By using Data mining query language user friendly graphical interfaces can be built. Which facilitates a data mining systems communication with other information system.

DM Applications
Banking: loan/credit card approval
predict good customers based on old customers

Customer relationship management:

identify those who are likely to leave for a competitor.

Targeted marketing:
identify likely responders to promotions

Fraud detection: telecommunications, financial transactions

from an online stream of event identify fraudulent events

Manufacturing and production:

automatically adjust knobs when process parameter changes

DM Applications (continued)
Medicine: disease outcome, effectiveness of treatments
analyze patient disease history: find relationship between diseases

Molecular/Pharmaceutical: identify new drugs Scientific data analysis:

identify new galaxies by searching for sub clusters

Web site/store design and promotion:

find affinity of visitor to pages and modify layout

Why Data Mining? Potential Applications

Database analysis and decision support
Market analysis and management

target marketing, customer relation management, market basket analysis, cross selling, market segmentation
Risk analysis and management

Forecasting, customer retention, improved underwriting, quality control, competitive analysis

Fraud detection and management

Other Applications
Text mining (news group, email, documents) and Web analysis. Intelligent query answering

Market Analysis and Management (1)

Where are the data sources for analysis?
Credit card transactions, loyalty cards, discount coupons, customer complaint calls, plus (public) lifestyle studies

Target marketing
Find clusters of model customers who share the same characteristics: interest, income level, spending habits, etc.

Determine customer purchasing patterns over time

Conversion of single to a joint bank account: marriage, etc.

Cross-market analysis
Associations/co-relations between product sales Prediction based on the association information

Market Analysis and Management (2)

Customer profiling
data mining can tell you what types of customers buy what
products (clustering or classification)

Identifying customer requirements

identifying the best products for different customers
use prediction to find what factors will attract new customers

Provides summary information

various multidimensional summary reports
statistical summary information (data central tendency and variation)

Data Mining and Induction Principle

Induction vs Deduction Deductive reasoning is truth-preserving:
1. All horses are mammals 2. All mammals have lungs 3. Therefore, all horses have lungs

Induction reasoning adds information:

1. All horses observed so far have lungs. 2. Therefore, all horses have lungs.

The Problems with Induction

From true facts, we may induce false models. Prototypical example:
European swans are all white. Induce: Swans are white as a general rule. Discover Australia and black Swans... Problem: the set of examples is not random and representative

Another example: distinguish US tanks from Iraqi tanks

Method: Database of pictures split in train set and test set; Classification model built on train set Result: Good predictive accuracy on test set;Bad score on independent pictures Why did it go wrong: other distinguishing features in the pictures (hangar versus desert)

Hypothesis-Based vs. Exploratory-Based

The hypothesis-based method:
Formulate a hypothesis of interest. Design an experiment that will yield data to test this hypothesis. Accept or reject hypothesis depending on the outcome.

Exploratory-based method:
Try to make sense of a bunch of data without an a priori hypothesis! The only prevention against false results is significance:
ensure statistical significance (using train and test etc.) ensure domain significance (i.e., make sure that the results make sense to a domain expert)

Hypothesis-Based vs. Exploratory-Based

Experimental Scientist:
Assign level of fertilizer randomly to plot of land. Control for: quality of soil, amount of sunlight,... Compare mean yield of fertilized and unfertilized plots.

Data Miner:
Notices that the yield is somewhat higher under trees where birds roost. Conclusion: droppings increase yield. Alternative conclusion: moderate amount of shade increases yield.(Identification Problem)

Data Mining vs. Statistical Analysis

Statistical Analysis:
Ill-suited for Nominal and Structured Data Types Completely data driven - incorporation of domain knowledge not possible Interpretation of results is difficult and daunting Requires expert user guidance

Data Mining:
Large Data sets Efficiency of Algorithms is important Scalability of Algorithms is important Real World Data Lots of Missing Values Pre-existing data - not user generated Data not static - prone to updates Efficient methods for data retrieval available for use

Data Mining vs. DBMS

Example DBMS Reports
Last months sales for each service type Sales per service grouped by customer sex or age bracket List of customers who lapsed their policy

Questions answered using Data Mining

What characteristics do customers that lapse their policy have in common and how do they differ from customers who renew their policy? Which motor insurance policy holders would be potential customers for my House Content Insurance policy?

Data Mining and Data Warehousing

Data Warehouse: a centralized data repository which can be queried for business benefit. Data Warehousing makes it possible to
extract archived operational data overcome inconsistencies between different legacy data formats integrate data throughout an enterprise, regardless of location, format, or communication requirements incorporate additional or expert information

OLAP: On-line Analytical Processing Multi-Dimensional Data Model (Data Cube) Operations:
Roll-up Drill-down Slice and dice Rotate

An OLAM Architecture
Mining query
User GUI API

Mining result

Layer4 User Interface

OLAM Engine
Data Cube API

OLAP Engine

Layer3
OLAP/OLAM

Layer2

MDDB
Meta Data
Filtering&Integration

MDDB

Database API
Data cleaning

Filtering

Layer1 Databases Data Warehouse Data integration Data Repository

DBMS, OLAP, and Data Mining

DBMS
Task

OLAP
Summaries, trends and forecasts
Analysis Multidimensional data modeling, Aggregation, Statistics What is the average income of mutual fund buyers by region by year?

Data Mining
Knowledge discovery of hidden patterns and insights
Insight and Prediction Induction (Build the model, apply it to new data, get the result) Who will buy a mutual fund in the next 6 months and why?

Extraction of detailed and summary data

Information Deduction (Ask the question, verify with data)

Type of result

Method

Example question

Who purchased mutual funds in the last 3 years?

Example of DBMS, OLAP and Data Mining: Weather Data

DBMS:
Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 outlook sunny sunny overcast rainy rainy rainy overcast sunny sunny rainy sunny overcast overcast rainy temperature 85 80 83 70 68 65 64 72 69 75 75 72 81 71 humidity 85 90 86 96 80 70 65 95 70 80 70 90 75 91 windy false true false false false true true false false false true true false true play no no yes yes yes no yes no yes yes yes yes yes no

Example of DBMS, OLAP and Data Mining: Weather Data

By querying a DBMS containing the above table we may answer questions like: What was the temperature in the sunny days? {85, 80, 72, 69, 75} Which days the humidity was less than 75? {6, 7, 9, 11} Which days the temperature was greater than 70? {1, 2, 3, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14} Which days the temperature was greater than 70 and the humidity was less than 75? The intersection of the above two: {11}

Example of DBMS, OLAP and Data Mining: Weather Data

OLAP:
Using OLAP we can create a Multidimensional Model of our data (Data Cube). For example using the dimensions: time, outlook and play we can create the following model.
9/5 Week 1 Week 2 sunny 0/2 2/1 rainy 2/1 1/1 overcast 2/0 2/0

Example of DBMS, OLAP and Data Mining: Weather Data

Data Mining: Using the ID3 algorithm we can produce the following decision tree:
outlook = sunny
humidity = high: no humidity = normal: yes

outlook = overcast: yes outlook = rainy

windy = true: no windy = false: yes

 How to couple a DM with DB or DW? If a DM system works as a stand alone system or is embedded in an application program, there are no DB or DW system with whom he has to communicate, then this scheme is known as no coupling. the integration/ coupling of DM can be done in various ways:

Integration of Data mining system with a database or data warehouse.

 No coupling: In this DM system will not utilize any function of a DB or DW system. It may fetch data from a particular source such as file and process the data using DM algorithm and then store the data in a file. Loose Coupling: The DM system will use some facilities of a DB or DW system, fetching data from a data repository managed by these systems, performing data mining, and then storing the mining results either in a file or in a designated place in a database or data warehouse.

 Semi tight coupling: In this besides linking a DM system to a DB/ DW system, efficient implementation of a few essential DM primitives can be provided in the DB/ DW. The primitives include sorting, indexing, aggregation etc. Tight coupling: in this a DM system is smoothly integrated into the DB / DW system. The DM subsystem is treated as one functional component of an information system. This provides a uniform information processing environment.

Major Issues in Data Warehousing and Mining

Mining methodology and user interaction
Mining different kinds of knowledge in databases
Interactive mining of knowledge at multiple levels of abstraction Incorporation of background knowledge Data mining query languages and ad-hoc data mining Expression and visualization of data mining results Handling noise and incomplete data Pattern evaluation: the interestingness problem

Performance and scalability

Efficiency and scalability of data mining algorithms Parallel, distributed and incremental mining methods

Major Issues in Data Warehousing and Mining

Issues relating to the diversity of data types
Handling relational and complex types of data Mining information from heterogeneous databases and global information systems (WWW)

Issues related to applications and social impacts

Application of discovered knowledge
Domain-specific data mining tools Intelligent query answering Process control and decision making

Integration of the discovered knowledge with existing knowledge: A knowledge fusion problem Protection of data security, integrity, and privacy

Challenges of Data Mining

Scalability Dimensionality Complex and Heterogeneous Data Data Quality Data Ownership and Distribution Privacy Preservation Streaming Data