Chapter 17

Radioactivity
17.1 Radioactive decay
(1 hour)
Radioactivity
Half-life
T
1/2
= ln2/
Radioactive
decay ,and
Activity
A
t
=-dN/N = N
Decay constant
= -(dN/N)/N

The use of
radioisotopes as a
tracers
The biological effect
of radiation
1. Absorbed dose
2. Dose equivalent

Conceptual map
Chapter 17
OBJECTIVES
17.1 Radioactive decay
1. Explain radioactive decay as a spontaneous
and random processes
2. Understand ,
+
,
-
, decay processes

17.1 Radioactive decay

Radioactivity is the process where a nucleus is
spontaneously breakdown and emits particles
and rays.
Radioactive decay is a process where a
unstable nucleus splits and transmutes into less
massive daughter nuclei and energetic particles
1.Radioactivity decay spontaneous and random

There are three types of radioactive
emission from the nuclei of the
radioactive atoms:
Alpha () Alpha particles are helium
nuclei with two neutrons and two
protons. Each alpha particle is double
charged. They are good ionizers, do not
have high penetrating power.
Beta ( ) the beta particles have the
same mass and charge as an electron.
Their velocity are high and they
process high penetrating power.
Gamma () Gamma rays are high-
energy electromagnetic radiations of
very short wavelengths. They are not
particle and do not have charge, but
have high penetrating power.
The decay is independent of physical
conditions and chemical bonding, but it
depends only on the type of atom and the
number of these atoms.
Cannot predict which nucleus will decay
Can predict the number of nuclei that will
decay in a given time
Every nucleus has the same chance of
decaying per unit time
2. , +, -, and decay processes

Alpha decay : is the emission of a helium
nucleus from the nucleus of heavy radioactive
element (Z > 82)
General equation:
Alpha particles: Symbol He @ , Charged
+2e and the penetrating power in air is 5 cm
Example :
Q He Y X
A
Z
A
Z
+ +

4
2
4
2
2
4
He Th U
4
2
234
90
238
92
+
3.Beta decay

Negatron decay (-)
It happen when the number of neutrons more
then protons in a nucleus and it caused
unstable condition. The transformation of a
neutron to proton is can give the ratio of N/Z
for stable nucleus.
A neutron inside the nucleus changes to an
electron

General equations :
Example :
u | + +

+
0
1 1
Y X
A
Z
A
Z
|
0
1
14
7
14
6
+ N C
) ( ) (
0
1
1
1
1
0
no antineutri electron p n u | + +
positron decay (+)
It will happen when the number of protons
more then neutrons in a nucleus and it caused
unstable condition. The transformation of a
proton to neutron is can give the ratio of N/Z
for stable nucleus.


General equations :

Note: Neutrino have a same
characteristic with antineutrino
Example:
) ( ) (
0
1
1
0
1
1
neutrino positron n p u | + +
+
u | + +
+
0
1 1
Y X
A
Z
A
Z
u | + +
+
0
1
15
7
15
2
N O
4.Gamma decay ()

Gamma rays are emitted when an excited
nucleus jumps to lower energy levels. This
will happen when the nucleus decays into
alpha or beta particles. Thus gamma-ray
emission often associates with other type
of decays.
General equation:
+ Y X
A
Z
A
Z
Example 1:
A radioactive isotope decay and emits one
alpha and two beta particles consecutively.
Write the formula for the nuclides produced

Answer

X
A
Z
X e He X
A
Z
A
Z
4 0
1
4
2
2

+ +
Summary

Radioactivity decay
spontaneous and
random
Alpha decay

Negatron decay (-)

positron decay (+)

Gamma decay ()
Q He Y X
A
Z
A
Z
+ +

4
2
4
2
u | + +

+
0
1 1
Y X
A
Z
A
Z
u | + +
+
0
1 1
Y X
A
Z
A
Z
+ Y X
A
Z
A
Z
Chapter 17
Radioactivity

17.2 Decay constant and half-life
(1 hour)

Radioactivity
Half-life
T
1/2
= ln2/
Radioactive
decay ,and
Activity
A
t
=-dN/N = N
Decay constant
= -(dN/N)/N

The use of
radioisotopes as a
tracers
The biological effect
of radiation
1. Absorbed dose
2. Dose equivalent

Conceptual map
Chapter 17
OBJECTIVES
17.2 Decay constant and half-life

1. State and use the decay law dN/dt=-N
2. Define activity and decay constant
3. Derive and use N = N
o
e
-t
or A=A
O
e
-t
.
4. Define and use the half-life (T
1/2
)

17.2 Decay constant and half-life
The basic of decay law is decay rate is
directly proportional to the number of atoms, N
present at that instant.


where:
At, activity is defined as the disintegrations per
second by the radioactive nucleus. It is
measured in Becquerel. 1 Bq = 1 disintegration
per second
dt
dN

N
dt
dN
A
t
= =
Another unit is curie. 1 Ci =3.7 x 10
10

disintegrations per second = 3.7x1010 Bq
is decay rate
N is number of nuclei remain at time t from initial
is decay constant
Decay constant ,

for radioactive nucleus is the probability of 1
radioactive nucleus will decay in 1 second.
N
dt
dN
=
From,


by integrating this equation from t =0 when N = N0 to
t = t when N = N

dt
N
dN
N
dt
dN

=
=
| |
t
N
N
t N
N
N
dN
o
t
N
N
N
N
o
o

=
=
=
}
ln
] [ ln
0
t
o t
t
o
t
o
e A A
or
e N N
e
N
N

=
=
=
The decreasing of the radioactive nuclues
number is exponen to the time and this
changing is direct proportional to remaining
activity.
The half-life of the nuclide is the time taken for
half of initial number of unstable nuclei to decay

Half-life, T
1/2
Time, t
From equation of:
When t =T
1/2
, N =N/2
So,







t
o
e N N

=

2 ln
1 ln 2 ln
2 ln 1 ln
ln
2
1
ln
2
1
2
2 / 1
2 / 1
2 / 1
2 / 1
2 / 1
2 / 1
=
=
=
=
=
=

T
T
T
e
e
e N
N
T
T
T
o
o
Mean life, = 1/
So, half-life
T
1/2
= ln2
T
1/2
= 0.693

Example 2:
The number of radioactive nuclides from a
radioactive source has reduced to 1/6 from its
original value in 60 seconds. Find the decay
constant for this source
Answer :


Cross multiple, e
-t
=6
t = ln6
in both sides:
= ln 6 / t p = ln6 / 60 = 2.786 x 10
-2
s
-1



t
t
t
o
t
o
e
e
e
N
N
e N N

= =
= =
1
2
1
Example 3:
An with half-life 24 days decay into
how long it will take 80 % of the sample
isotope to change to ?

Answer
From the equation of

Th
234
90
Pa
234
91
Pa
234
91
2 / 1
1
)
2
1
(
T
o
N
N
=
2 / 1
1
)
2
1
(
100
20
T
=

2 . 0 5 . 0
2 / 1
1
=
T
Take log to both sides:
73 . 55
3219 . 2
24
5 . 0 log
2 . 0 log
2 . 0 log 5 . 0 log
2 / 1
2 / 1
=
=
=
=
t
t
T
t
T
t
days
summary
At, activity
Decay constant

N
dt
dN
A
t
= =
N
dt
dN
=
The half-life of the nuclide
is the time taken for half of
initial number of unstable
nuclei to decay

2 ln
2 / 1
= T
Chapter 17
Radioactivity
17.3 The use of radioisotopes
17.4 The biological effect of ionization radiation
(1 hour )

Radioactivity
Half-life
T
1/2
= ln2/
Radioactive
decay ,and
Activity
A
t
=-dN/N = N
Decay constant
= -(dN/N)/N

The use of
radioisotopes as a
tracers
The biological effect
of radiation
1. Absorbed dose
2. Dose equivalent

Conceptual map
Chapter 17
OBJECTIVES


17.3 The use of radioisotopes

Explain the use of radioisotopes as tracers


17.4 The biological effect of ionization radiation

Define and use the absorbed dose and equivalent dose formula


17.3 The use of radioisotope
The process is not unchanged though the
radioactive nuclides become part of the
compound.
The stable atoms are replaced with radioactive
nuclides in a chemical and thus the path of the
chemical through the system can be traced.
1. Use of radioisotopes as tracers

Examples:

Oil leakage: A gamma emitter is added to
the oil. If there is a leak there will be an
unusually high count rate close to the crack.

To investigate metabolic pathways or blood flow: A
small quantities of iodine-131 ( a beta and gamma
emitter) with a half-life of 8 days in injected into a
patients bloodstream and later build up in the
kidneys. The process of the iodine is measured with
Geiger counter outside the body around the kidney
region. If there is a blockage, the count rate will rise .
To investigate metabolic pathways or blood flow: A
small quantities of iodine-131 ( a beta and gamma
emitter) with a half-life of 8 days in injected into a
patients bloodstream and later build up in the
kidneys. The process of the iodine is measured with
Geiger counter outside the body around the kidney
region. If there is a blockage, the count rate will rise .

Technectium-99 : The Technectium-99,
a gamma emitter, is used to label
compound which is absorbed by tissues
to be studied. The gamma radiations
can be recorded by detectors with
outputs are combine to form an image.
This technique can be study the kidney
function.
17.4 The biological effect of
ionization radiation
This is a measure of the radiation dose (as
energy per unit mass) actually absorbed by by
a specific object such as patients hand or
chest.
Its SI unit is the Gray (Gy) and the older unit
is rad (from radiation absorbed dose)
1 Gy = 1 J/kg = Rad

1. Dose absorbed
2. Dose Equivalent
Although different types of radiation (gamma rays and
neutrons,say) may deliver the same amount energy to
the body, they do not the same biological effect.

The dose equivalent allow us to express the biological
effect by multiplying the absorbed dose ( in Grays or
rads) by numerical RBE factor (from relative biological
effectiveness).

For X-rays and electrons, for example, RBE = 1; for
slow neutrons RBE = 5;for Alpha particles RBE = 10;
and so on.
Personnel-monitoring such as film badges register the
dose equivalent.

Dose equivalent (in rems) = dose (in rads ) x RBE

Or

Dose equivalent (in Sivert, Sv) = dose (in Grays) x RBE

Its unit SI is (Sievert,Sv), 1 Sv = 100 Rem

The recommendation of National Council on Radiation
Protection is that no individual who is (nonocupationally)
exposed to radiation should receive a does equivalent
greater than 5 m Sv = (0.5 rem) in any year.
Example
We have seen that a gamma-ray dose of 3 Gy
lethal to half the people exposed to it. If the
equivalent were absorbed as heat, what rise in
body temperature would result? (Assume that
the specific heat of the human body is 4180
J/Kg.K

Answer:
From the equation of Q = mc T

,
, where Q/m = absorbed dose

= =7.2 x 10-4 K 700 K
c
m Q
T
/
= A
4180
3
summary
1. Use of radioisotopes as tracers

2.The biological effect of ionization radiation
-

-
Dose absorbed
Dose Equivalent