Concept Of Latitude and

Longitude
 Geodesy and Map Projections
• Coordinate systems - (x,y) coordinate systems
for map data, Geographic coordinate system

• Geodesy - the shape of the earth and definition

of earth datums

• Map Projection - the transformation of a

curved earth to a flat map
 Plane Coordinate Systems
A Map…
…record of location of objects in geographic
space.
…each location is unique and can be
represented in different ways.
Ø Pair of longitude and latitude to locate a place
on earth surface.
Ø ZIP code of a location (Zone Improvement
Plan)
All these methods of fixing locations relates to the
mathematical concepts of Coordinates.
Plane Coordinate Systems

A coordinate is one of a set of numbers that

determines the location of a point in a space of
a given dimension.

Two basic types of coordinate reference system on a plane (two-

dimensional space):
2. Plane rectangular coordinate system
3. Plane polar coordinate system
Plane Rectangular Coordinate System (Cartesian Coordinate
System)
§The Cartesian coordinate system(also called rectangular
coordinate system) is used;
…to determine each point uniquely in a plane through two
numbers, usually called:
• the x-coordinate or abscissa and
• the y-coordinate or ordinate of the point.
§ Cartesian coordinate systems are also
used in space (where three coordinates
are used) and in higher dimension.
 Global Cartesian Coordinates
(x,y,z)
Z
Greenwich
Meridian

O
• Y

X
Equator
Plane Polar Coordinate System
§ The Polar Coordinate System…
… a two dimensional coordinate
system in which each point on a plane
is determined by an angle and a
distance.

Øespecially useful in situations

where the relationship between
two points is most
easily expressed in terms of angles
and distance;

Øin the more familiar Cartesian or

rectangular coordinate system, such
a relationship can only be found
through trigonometric formulation.
Geographic Coordinate Systems of Earth
In order to locate places on earth, a three dimensional
coordinate reference system has to be develop that takes
into account its shape.
Shape of the Earth
We think of the It is actually a spheroid,
earth as a sphere slightly larger in radius at
the equator than at the poles
 Latitude and Longitude
• The earth is divided into lots of lines called
latitude and longitude.
 Lines
• Longitude lines run north and south.
• Latitude lines run east and west.
• The lines measure distances in degrees.

Latitude
Longitude
 Where is 0 degree?

• The equator is 0 degree latitude.

• It is an imaginary belt that runs halfway
point between the North Pole and the
South Pole.

Equator
 Where is 0 degree?
• The prime meridianis 0 degrees longitude.
This imaginary line runs through the United
Kingdom, France, Spain, western Africa, and
Antarctica.
Unnderstanding
Longitude & Latitude
 Typical Graph
• This is an example of a
typical graph we are all
familiar with.
• The graph is made up of
different “points” with
lines that connect
the points.
 Typical Graph
• Each point has two Y axis

values:
• The “X” value that
runs along the
horizontal “X” axis
• The “Y” value that
runs along the
vertical “Y” axis
X axis
 Typical Graph
• X value is always
Y
stated first (3,8) (9,5)
• Followed by the Y
value
• The “origin” is the
point where
the 2 axes intersect
X
with a
value of (0,0) (0,0)
 Typical Graph
• A point can also have
Y
negative
(-) values
(-X,+Y) (+X,+Y)
• Negative X values are
(0,0)
to the left X
of the origin (0,0)
• Negative Y values are (-X,-Y) (+X,-Y)
below the
origin
 East West, North South on The
Earth
• Let the X axis be the Equator. Y
• Let the Y axis be the Prime
Meridian
that runs through Greenwich
outside X
of London.
• Lat/Long are the 2 grid points
by
which you can locate any
point on
earth.
 East West, North South on the
Earth
• Let each of the four quarters then be designated by
North or South and East or West.
N

W E

S
 East West, North South on the
Earth
• The N tells us we’re
north of the Equator. (N, W) (N, E)
The S tells us we’re
south of the Equator.
• The E tells us that we’re
east of the Prime
Meridian. The W tells
us that we’re west of the
Prime Meridian. (S, W) (S, E)
 East West, North South on the
Earth
• That means all points in (N, W)
North
America will have a
North latitude and a West
longitude because it is
North of the Equator and
West of the Prime
Meridian.

Prime Meridian
 East West, North South on the
Earth
• What would be the
latitude and longitude
directions in
Australia?

?
Prime Meridian

If you said South and East , you’re right!

 What is Latitude?
• Latitude is the distance
from the 90°N
Y
equator along the Y
axis.
• All points along the
equator have a value of X
0 degrees latitude.
• North pole = 90°N
• South pole = 90°S
90°S
• Values are expressed in
terms of degrees.
 What is Latitude?
• Each degree of
90°N
latitude is divided Y
into
60 minutes.
• Each minute is X
divided into 60
seconds.

90°S

This is also true of longitude.

 What is Longitude?
• Longitude is the distance
from the prime meridian
Y
along the X axis.
• All points along the
prime meridian have a X
value of 0 degrees
longitude.
• The earth is divided into
two parts, or
hemispheres, of east 180°W 180°E
and west longitude.
 Hemispheres

• By using the equator and prime

meridian, we can divide the world
into four hemispheres, north,
south, east, and west.
 What is Longitude?
Y
• The earth is divided
into 360 equal slices
(meridians) X
• 180 west and 180 east
of the prime meridian

180°W 180°E
 What is Latitude?
90°N
Y
• Our latitude and
longitude might be:
• 37°, 03’,13’’N
X
• 76°, 29’, 45’’W

90°S
 So Where is (0,0)?
• The origin point (0,0)
is where the equator
intersects the
prime meridian.
• (0,0) is off the
western coast of
Africa in the Atlantic
Ocean.
Latitude and Longitude on a
Sphere
Greenwich Z Meridian of longitude
N
meridian Parallel of latitude
°
P


•

 




W O E
R
• Y
 • R - Mean earth
 radius
 Equator =0°
•  O-
X Geocenter
 
 

Lat/long system measures angles on spherical
surfaces
e.g.

• 60º east of PM
• 55º north of equator
In Summary!
 Positioning on the Earth’s Surface
East is the direction of Latitude: (90oN to 90oS)
rotation of the Earth North Pole
Prime Meridian Longitude: (180oE to 180oW)
0o Longitude

Tropic of Cancer Latitude 23½o North

21st June 90
60o90
30
30 Eo
oW
60
90
22nd Sept 66½23½
o
o
Equator Latitude 0o
900 23½o
20th March
22nd December
Tropic of Capricorn Latitude 23½o South

Longitude 90o West

Longitude 90oEast
Longitude 60o West Longitude 60o East

Longitude 30o West Longitude 30o East

South Pole
Latitude and Longitude together enable the fixing of position on the Earth’s surface.
 Now you can find any
desired location on a map!
 Geographical Coordinate systems
• Lat/long values are NOT Cartesian (X, Y)
coordinates
– constant angular deviations do not have constant
distance deviations
– 1° of longitude at the equator 1° of longitude
near the poles
 Globe
• Spherical Earth’s surface
-radius 6371 km
• Meridians (lines of longitude)
- passing through
Greenwich, England as prime
meridian or 0º longitude.
• Parallels (lines of latitude)
- using equator as 0º True direction, shape,
latitude. distance, and area

• degrees-minutes-seconds
(DMS),
• decimal degrees (DD)
Geographic Latitude/Longitude
Coordinate System
Ellipsoidal Parameters

a
Spheroids and Geoids
 Spheroids and Geoids
• The rotation of the earth generates a centrifugal
force that causes the surface of the oceans to protrude
more at the equator than at the poles.
• This causes the shape of the earth to be an ellipsoid
or a spheroid, and not a sphere.
• The nonuniformity of the earth’s shape is described
by the term geoid. The geoid is essentially an
ellipsoid with a highly irregular surface; a geoid
resembles a potato or pear.
 The Ellipsoid
• The ellipsoid is an approximation of the
Earth’s shape that does not account for
variations caused by non-uniform density of
the Earth.
• Examples of Ellipsoids
 Ellipsoid or Spheroid
Rotate an ellipse around an axis

b
a O a Y

Rotational
axis
 The Geoid
• A calculation of the earth’s size and shape differ
from one location to another.
• For each continent, internationally accepted
ellipsoids exist, such as Clarke 1866 for the
United States and the Kravinsky ellipsoid for the
former Soviet Union.
 The Geoid
• Satellite measurements have led to the use of
geodetic datums WGS-84 (World Geodetic
System) and GRS-1980(Geodetic Reference
System) as the best ellipsoids for the entire geoid.
 The Geoid
• The maximum discrepancy between the geoid
and the WGS-84 ellipsoid is 60 meters above
and 100 meters below.
• Because the Earth’s radius is about 6,000,000
meters (~6350 km), the maximum error is one
part in 100,000.
Representations of the Earth
Mean Sea Level is a surface of constant
gravitational potential called the Geoid
Sea Ellipsoi
surface d

Earth
surface

Geoid
 Earth Surface: Ellipsoid, Geoid, Topo

• The reference ellipsoid

surface (a map of
average sea level).
• The reference geoid
surface (a mean sea
level surface).
• The real surface of the
Earth (the ground) also
called the topographic
surface.
 Geoid and Ellipsoid
Earth
surface

Ellipsoid
Ocean

Geoid Gravity Anomaly

Gravity anomaly is the elevation difference between

a standard shape of the earth (ellipsoid) and a surface
of constant gravitational potential (geoid)
Definition of Elevation
Elevation Z
P
z = zp
•
z = 0 Land Surface

Mean Sea level =

Geoid
Elevation is measured from the
Geoid
 Standard Ellipsoids

Ref: Snyder, Map Projections, A working manual, USGS

Professional Paper 1395, p.12
 Geodetic Datum
• Geodetic datum defines the size and shape of the ellipsoid earth and
the origin (or position) and orientation (or direction) with respect to
the Earth.

• the direction of the minor axis of the ellipsoid. This is classically

defined as being parallel to the mean spin axis of the earth

• the position of its centre, either implied by adopting a geodetic latitude

and longitude (Φ, λ) and geoid / ellipsoid separation (N) at one, or
more points (datum stations), or in absolute terms with reference to the
Earth centre of mass; and

• the zero of longitude (conventionally the Greenwich Meridian).

• True geodetic datums were employed only after the late 1700s when
measurements showed that the earth was ellipsoidal in shape. The
science of geodesy.
 Datums
• Commonly used datums in North America

– North American Datum of 1927 (NAD27)

– NAD83

– Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS84)_

 Horizontal Earth Datums
• An earth datum is defined by an ellipse and
an axis of rotation
• NAD27 (North American Datum of 1927)
uses the Clarke (1866) ellipsoid on a non
geocentric axis of rotation
• NAD83 (NAD,1983) uses the GRS80
ellipsoid on a geocentric axis of rotation
• WGS84 (World Geodetic System of 1984)
uses GRS80, almost the same as NAD83
 Vertical Earth Datums
• A vertical datum defines elevation, z
• NGVD29 (National Geodetic Vertical
Datum of 1929)
• NAVD88 (North American Vertical Datum
of 1988)
• takes into account a map of gravity
anomalies between the ellipsoid and the
geoid
 Selected
Ellipsoids
and Datums

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