Meiosis

Sexual Reproduction
Chromosomes are duplicated in germ cells Germ cells undergo meiosis and cytoplasmic division

Cellular descendents of germ cells become gametes

Gametes meet at fertilization

Asexual Reproduction
Single parent produces offspring All offspring are genetically identical to one another and to parent

Sexual Reproduction
Involves
Meiosis Gamete production Fertilization

Produces genetic variation among offspring

Question 2
2. Sexual reproduction involves three (3) processes, identify them.

Fertilization

http://www.wappingersschools.org/RCK/staff/teacherhp/johnson/visualvocab/page4.html

Fertilization Video
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t_eNmc _gHyE

Homologous Chromosomes Carry Different Alleles

Cell has two of each chromosome One chromosome in each pair from mother, other from father Paternal and maternal chromosomes carry different alleles

Sister Chromatids
Prior to S of interphase, each chromosome consists of a single chromatid.
A pair of sister chromatids

http://www.vcbio.science.ru.nl/eng/virtuallessons/cellcycle/chromosome/

Sexual Reproduction Shuffles Alleles

Through sexual reproduction, offspring inherit new combinations of alleles, which leads to variations in traits
This variation in traits is the basis for evolutionary change

Variation in Offspring

http://www.seapix.com/jagphoto/ladybugs.htm

Gamete Formation
Gametes are sex cells (sperm, eggs)

Arise from germ cells

ovaries

testes

anther

ovary
Figure 10.2a Page 164

Chromosome Number
Sum total of chromosomes in a cell Germ cells are diploid (2n)

Gametes are haploid (n)

Meiosis halves chromosome number

Meiosis: Two Divisions

Two consecutive nuclear divisions
Meiosis I Meiosis II

DNA is not duplicated between divisions

Four haploid nuclei form

Meiosis Video
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D1_mQS_FZ0

Meiosis I

Each homologue in the cell pairs with its partner, then the partners separate

In-text figure Page 165

Meiosis II
The two sister chromatids of each duplicated chromosome are separated from each other

two chromosomes (unduplicated) one chromosome (duplicated)

In-text figure Page 165

Meiosis I - Stages

Prophase I

Metaphase I Anaphase I

Telophase I
Figure 10.4 Page 167

Prophase I
Each duplicated chromosome pairs with homologue Homologues swap segments Each chromosome becomes attached to spindle
Figure 10.4 Page 167

Metaphase I
Chromosomes are pushed and pulled into the middle of cell The spindle is fully formed

Figure 10.4 Page 167

Anaphase I
Homologous chromosomes segregate The sister chromatids remain attached
Figure 10.4 Page 167

Telophase I
The chromosomes arrive at opposite poles Usually followed by cytoplasmic division

Figure 10.4 Page 167

Prophase II
Microtubules attach to the kinetochores of the duplicated chromosomes

Figure 10.4 Page 167

Metaphase II
Duplicated chromosomes line up at the spindle equator, midway between the poles

Figure 10.4 Page 167

Anaphase II
Sister chromatids separate to become independent chromosomes

Figure 10.4 Page 167

Telophase II
The chromosomes arrive at opposite ends of the cell A nuclear envelope forms around each set of chromosomes Four haploid cells
Figure 10.4 Page 167

Crossing Over
Each chromosome becomes zippered to its

homologue
All four chromatids are closely aligned Nonsister chromosomes exchange segments
Figure 10.5 Page 168

Effect of Crossing Over

After crossing over, each chromosome contains both maternal and paternal segments

Creates new allele combinations in

offspring

Random Alignment
During transition between prophase I and metaphase I, microtubules from spindle poles attach to kinetochores of chromosomes Initial contacts between microtubules and chromosomes are random

Random Alignment
Either the maternal or paternal member of a homologous pair can end up at either pole The chromosomes in a gamete are a mix of chromosomes from the two parents

Possible Chromosome Combinations

As a result of random alignment, the number of possible combinations of chromosomes in a gamete is:
2n (n is number of chromosome types)

Possible Chromosome Combinations

or

or

or

Figure 10.6 Page 169

Plant Life Cycle

mitosis zygote

multicelled sporophyte

fertilization

Diploid Haploid

meiosis

gametes multicelled gametophytes

spores mitosis

Figure 10.7 Page 170

Animal Life Cycle

mitosis zygote

multicelled body

fertilization

Diploid Haploid

meiosis

gametes

Figure 10.7 Page 170

Oogenesis

first polar body (haploid)

three polar bodies (haploid)

oogonium (diploid)

primary oocyte (diploid)

secondary oocyte (haploid)

ovum (haploid)

Growth

Meiosis I, Cytoplasmic Division

Meiosis II, Cytoplasmic Division

Figure 10.8 Page 171

spermatogonium (diploid )

primary spermatocyte (diploid)

secondary spermatocytes (haploid)

spermatids (haploid)

sperm (mature, haploid male gametes)

Spermatogenesis

Growth

Meiosis I, Cytoplasmic Division

Meiosis II, Cytoplasmic Division

cell differentiation, sperm formation

Figure 10.9 Page 171

Oogenesis
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kkrY1D Teqvs&feature=related

Spermatogenesis
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=POpbN 6RHOO0&feature=related

Cancer rise and sperm quality fall 'due to chemicals'

BBC March 2011 Sperm quality significantly deteriorated and testicular cancers increased over recent years, a Finnish study says. research suggests environmental reasons, particularly exposure to industrial chemicals, may be behind both trends.

Key Genital Measurement Linked to Male Fertility

http://tinyurl.com/477s9wl

March 08, 2011| Reuters When it comes to male fertility, it turns out that size does matter..

Key Genital Measurement Linked to Male Fertility

March 08, 2011| Reuters When it comes to male fertility, it turns out that size does matter.. The dimension in question is not penis or testicle size, but a measurement known as anogenital distance, or AGDMen whose AGD is shorter than the median length -- around 2 inches (52 mm) -- have seven times the chance of being sub-fertilescientists tested for the presence of phthalates in the pregnant women's urine. They found that women who had high levels of phthalates in their urine during pregnancy gave birth to sons who were 10 times more likely to have shorter than expected AGDsPhthalates are a group of chemicals
widely used in industrial and personal care products, including fragrances, shampoos, soaps, plastics, paints and some pesticides.

Elite cyclists 'risk infertility'

BBC 29 June 2009 Professional cyclists should consider freezing their sperm before embarking on their careers, say researchers.

Daily sex 'best for good sperm'

BBC 30 June 2009 Having sex every day improves sperm quality and could boost the chances of getting pregnant, research suggests.

The Sperm Race

BBC Over the past 50 years, sperm counts around the world have fallen from an average of 113 million sperm per ml to between 66 and 76 million. Scientists have suggested that male infertility is the leading cause of infertile couples.

The Sperm Race

"antioxidants and micronutrients are important for semen quality" How we changed their diets The smoothies were just one of the additions the men in our study made to their diets. They also increased their nutrient intake and cut down considerably on fatty foods and alcohol, also increasing the amount of exercise they did.

The Sperm Race

Blueberry Bliss 1 mango,1 handful blueberries, Juice lime, and100ml apple juice Peachy Treat 1 peaches, mango, orange, and100ml orange juice
http://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/humanbody/truthaboutfood/sexy /spermrace.shtml

Fertilization
Male and female gametes unite and nuclei fuse Fusion of two haploid nuclei produces diploid nucleus in the zygote Which two gametes unite is random
Adds to variation among offspring

Fertilization Restores Diploid State

Sperm, haploid Ova, haploid

Zygote, diploid

Factors Contributing to Variation among Offspring

Crossing over during prophase I Random alignment of chromosomes at metaphase I Random combination of gametes at

fertilization

Mitosis & Meiosis Compared

Mitosis
Functions
Asexual reproduction Growth, repair

Meiosis
Function
Sexual reproduction

Occurs in somatic cells Produces clones

Occurs in germ cells

Produces variable offspring

Prophase vs. Prophase I

Prophase (Mitosis)
Homologous pairs do not interact with each other

Prophase I (Meiosis)
Homologous pairs become zippered together

and crossing over occurs

Anaphase, Anaphase I, and Anaphase II

Anaphase I (Meiosis)
Homologous chromosomes separate from each other

Anaphase/Anaphase II (Mitosis/Meiosis)
Sister chromatids of a chromosome separate from each other

Results of Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis
Two diploid cells produced Each identical to parent

Meiosis
Four haploid cells produced

Differ from parent and one another

So if Sexual Reproduction is Advantageous,

How do you explain the all female species of the Whip-tailed lizard, the parthenogenetic Cnemidophorus uniparens ? (Thats correct, this is a unisex species that undergoes virgin birth!)

Most products of crossbreeding, such as the mule, are sterile

New Mexico Whiptail, is an all-female species that is actually a mixture (hybrid) of the Western Whiptail, which lives in the desert, and the Little Striped Whiptail, a denizen of grasslands.

http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/expeditions/treasure_fossil/Treasures/Unisexual_Whiptail_Lizards/lizards.html?50

New Mexico Whiptail is Triploid

These lizards have 3 sets of chromosomes (3n) = 69 Studies have shown that just prior to meiosis I, this number is doubled to 138. The primary oocytes then go through what appears to be a normal meiosis I an II thus maintaining 3n = 69. Then the ova matures and begins mitosis and produces all female embryos.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/109918083/ABSTRACT?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0

How does this species remain vigorous without the normal genetic variants?

Source of Additional Information

Wikipedia (free online encyclopedia) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiosis This site goes a little beyond the scope of this lecture. You are responsible for mastering the material in this lecture only.