Oscillations

14. Oscillations Content 14.1 Simple harmonic motion 14.2 Energy in simple harmonic motion 14.3 Damped and forced oscillations: resonance Learning Outcomes (a) describe simple examples of free oscillations. * (b) investigate the motion of an oscillator using experimental and graphical methods. (c) understand and use the terms amplitude, period, frequency, angular frequency and phase difference and express the period in terms of both frequency and angular frequency. (d) recognise and use the equation a = 2x as the defining equation of simple harmonic motion.

(e) recall and use x = xo sin t as a solution to the equation a = 2x. (f) recognise and use v = vo cos t, v = (x2o x2) * (g) describe with graphical illustrations, the changes in displacement, velocity and acceleration during simple harmonic motion. (h) describe the interchange between kinetic and potential energy during simple harmonic motion. * (i) describe practical examples of damped oscillations with particular reference to the effects of the degree of damping and the importance of critical damping in cases such as a car suspension system. (j) describe practical examples of forced oscillations and resonance. * (k) describe graphically how the amplitude of a forced oscillation changes with frequency near to the natural frequency of the system, and understand qualitatively the factors which determine the frequency response and sharpness of the resonance. (l) show an appreciation that there are some circumstances in which resonance is useful and other circumstances in which resonance should be avoided.

Oscillations and vibrations

Vibrations and oscillations occur all the time and are everywhere. Vibrations are physical evidence of waves, such as a loud stereo shaking a table, i.e. sound waves cause vibrations One complete movement from the starting point or rest point or equilibrium position and back to the starting point or rest position or equilibrium position is known as an oscillation The time taken for one complete oscillation is referred to as the period T of the oscillation The number of oscillations per unit time is the frequency f Frequency f = 1/T , may be measured in hertz (1 Hertz = 1 s-1) or in min-1, hour-1 etc The distance from the equilibrium position is known as the displacement and it is a vector quantity since the displacement may be on either side of the equilibrium position The amplitude (a scalar quantity) is the maximum displacement 3

Examples of oscillatory motion

beating of a heart a simple pendulum a vibrating guitar string vibrating tuning fork atoms in solids air molecules oscillate when sound waves travel through air. oscillations in electromagnetic waves such as light and radio waves oscillations in alternating current and voltage.

Recap from study of waves

Some oscillations maintain a constant period even when the amplitude of the oscillation changes. This is known as isochronous and has been made use of in timing devices Galelli Galileo discovered this for a pendulum. A pendulum swinging with a large amplitude is not isochronous

Displacement-time graphs

It is possible to plot displacement-time graphs for oscillators The graph describing the variation of displacement with time may have different shapes depending on the oscillating system For many oscillators the displacement-time graph of a free oscillation is approximately a sine or cosine curve

Simple harmonic motion (shm)

A sinusoidal displacement time graph is a characteristic of an important type of oscillation called simple harmonic motion(shm) In harmonic oscillators the amplitude is constant with time SHM is defined as the motion of a particle about a fixed point such that its force F or acceleration a is proportional to its displacement x from the fixed point, and is directed towards the point F is known as the restoring force Mathematically it is defined as a = - 2x where is the angular frequency and is equal to 2f

cont

The defining equation is represented in a graph of a against x as a straight line of negative gradient through the origin. Gradient is negative because of the minus sign in the equation which represents that acceleration is always directed towards the fixed point from which the displacement is measured This means that in shm, acceleration is directly proportional to the displacement/distance from the fixed point and is always directed to that point Acceleration is always opposite to the displacement since the force is also opposite to the displacement a

Comparisons

In linear motion, acceleration is constant in magnitude and direction In circular motion acceleration is constant in magnitude but not direction In simple harmonic motion the acceleration changes periodically in magnitude and direction

Solution of equation for shm

In order to find the displacement time relation for a particle moving in shm, we need to solve the equation a = - 2x which requires mathematics beyond the requirements of A/AS However we need to know the form of the solution x = x0 sin t or x = x0 cos t where x0 is the amplitude of the oscillation The solution x = x0 sin t is used when at time t = 0, the particle is at its equilibrium position where x = 0, and conversely if at time t = 0 the particle is at its maximum displacement, x = x0 the solution is x = x0 cos t

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Velocity & acceleration for shm

The velocity v of the particle is given by the expressions v = x0 cos t when x = x0 sin t v = -x0 sin t when x = x0 cos t The maximum speed is given by v0 = x0 An alternate expression for the velocity is v = (x02 x2) (which will be derived next) The acceleration a of the particle is given by the expressions a = -x02 sin t when x = x0 sin t a = -x02 cos t when x = x0 cos t

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Displacement, velocity and acceleration graphs

x
t v t a

t
Displacement (x), velocity (v) & acceleration time graph

Alternate expression for velocity

Recall that x = x0 sin t and v = x0 cos t So sin t = x/x0 and cos t = v/(x0) Trigonometric relationship between sine and cosine is sin2 + cos2 = 1 Applying the above relationship, we have x2/x02 + v2/(x022) = 1 which gives v2 = x022 - x2 2 , hence

v = (x02 - x2)

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Example
The displacement x at time t of a particle moving in shm is given by x = 0.25 cos 7.5t where x is in metres and t is in seconds. a) use the equation to find the amplitude, frequency and period for the motion b) find the displacement when t = 0.50 s Solution a) Compare the equation with x = x0 cos t The amplitude x0 = 0.25 m, = 2f = 7.5 rad/s, therefore f = 1.2 Hz and period T = 1/f = 0.84 s b) Substitute t = 0.50 s in the equation t = 7.5 x 0.50 = 3.75 rad = 215 so x = 0.25 cos 215 = -0.20 m

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Worked examples of shm

Mass on a helical spring Simple pendulum

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Mass on a helical spring Hookes law

Consider a mass m suspended from a spring The weight mg is balanced by the tension T in the spring When the spring is extended downwards by an amount x away from the equilibrium position, there is an additional upward force called the restoring force in the spring given by F = - kx When the mass is released the restoring force F pulls the mass upwards towards the equilibrium position. The minus sign shows the direction of this force. As the force is proportional to the displacement, the acceleration is also proportional to the displacement and is directed towards the equilibrium position meeting the condition for shm The full theory shows that the period of oscillation T = 2(m/k) since F = ma, then ma = - kx hence a = - (k/m)x = dv/dt = d2x/dt2
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The simple pendulum

A simple pendulum is a point mass m on a light inelastic string although in real experiments we use a finite pendulum bob of finite mass When the bob is pulled aside through an angle and released, there will be a restoring force acting in the direction of the equilibrium position Because the pendulum moves in an arc of a circle, the displacement will be an angular displacement rather than a linear displacement The 2 forces on the bob are its weight mg and the tension T in the string The component of the weight along the direction of the string mg cos , is equal to the tension T in the string The component of the weight at right angles to the direction of the string, mg sin , is the restoring force F. This makes the bob accelerate towards the equilibrium position The restoring force depends on . As increases the restoring force is not proportional to the displacement and so the motion is oscillatory but not shm, but if the angle is kept small (less than 5), is proportional to sin and exhibits shm (check using your calc) The full theory shows period of oscillation T = 2(l/g) where g is the acceleration of free fall A simple pendulum can be used to experimentally determine g by repeating the experiment with different lengths of pendulum and plotting a graph of T2 against 42/g

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Hookes law & shm

Any system which obeys Hooke's Law exhibits shm but i) extensions must not exceed the limit of proportionality ii) the spring must have small oscillations as large amplitude oscillations may cause the spring to become slack iii) the spring should have no mass; if the mass is > 20x the mass of the spring, the error is 1% This example of shm is a particularly useful model for interatomic forces and vibration of molecules containing atoms oscillating as if connected by tiny springs The frequency of oscillation can be measured using spectroscopy which gives direct information about the bonding

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Example
A light spring of spring constant k hangs vertically from a fixed point and a mass m is attached to its free end. a) State 2 conditions that must be met before the subsequent motion may be considered to be simple harmonic. b) Derive an expression for the period T of the resulting motion. Solution a) 2 conditions for shm are: a) The equilibrium position due to the mass is within the Hookes law limit of the spring b) the mass is given a small vertical displacement such that the springs Hookes law limit is not exceeded b) Let x = displacement of mass m, a = acceleration of mass m, F = ma = -kx Force in a spring is, - kx = ma , hence a = - (k/m)x As a is proportional to - x , so resulting motion is shm i.e. a = - 2x a = - (k/m)x = - 2x, so angular frequency = (k/m) Therefore period T = 2/ = 2(m/k)

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Example
A light string of length l hangs vertically from a fixed support and a mass m is attached to its free end. The mass is given a horizontal displacement and released to swing freely. a) State a condition which must be satisfied before the resulting oscillation may be considered shm. b) Derive an expression for the period T of the resulting motion. Solution a) A required condition is that the angular displacement is small l b) Let x = displacement of mass m, a = acceleration of mass m In the direction perpendicular to string, F = ma - mg sin = ma, so - g sin = a For small , sin x/l, so - gx/l a As a is proportional to - x , so resulting motion is shm i.e. a = - 2x Hence, - (g/l)x = - 2x, so = (g/l) Therefore period T = 2/ = 2(l/g)

mg

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Example
A helical spring is clamped at one end and hangs vertically. It extends by 10 cm when a mass of 50 g is hung from its free end. Calculate: a) the spring constant of the spring b) the period of small amplitude oscillations of the mass Solution a) k = F/x, k = 4.9 Nm-1 b) T = 2(m/k) T = 0.63 s

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Energy changes in shm

A system exhibiting simple harmonic motion would possess a constant total energy at all points of time The total energy normally comprises a portion of potential energy and another balanced portion of kinetic energy. There is thus a continuous interchange of the two energies during oscillations. For example, a weighted helical spring has a total energy that is the sum of the kinetic energy of the moving mass and the stored elastic potential energy of the spring. Plotting on the same graph for energy versus time/displacement, the two sinusoidal curves are completely out of phase. It can be proven that the total energy of a weighted spring is m2xo2 which is a constant. .

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Energy vs time graph

energy

K.E.

P.E.

total energy

0 0 T/4 T/2 3T/4 T

time

Energy versus time graph

Displacement, velocity and acceleration graphs

x
t v t a

t
Displacement (x), velocity (v) & acceleration time graph

Energy changes in shm

The kinetic energy of a particle of mass m oscillating with shm is mv2 and from the earlier derivation v2 = x022 - x2 2 So k.e Ek at displacement x is m2( x02- x2) To find the potential energy Ep we need to find the work done against the restoring force; since F = ma , Fres = - m2x but average restoring force = m2x Hence work done = average restoring force x displacement = m2x2 The total energy Etot of the oscillating system is given by Etot = Ek + Ep = m2( x02- x2) + m2x2 = m2x02 This total energy is constant as it merely expresses the law of conservation of energy Pg 272 Chris Mee figs 10.22, 10.23,10.24
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Example
A particle of mass 60 g oscillates with shm with angular frequency of 6.3 rad/s and amplitude 15 mm. Calculate a) the total energy b) the k.e and p.e at half amplitude (i.e. at x = 7.5 mm) Solution Etot = Ek + Ep = m2( x02- x2) + m2x2 = m2x02
a) Etot = m2x02 = 2.7 x 10-4 J b) Ek = m2( x02- x2) = 2.0 x 10-4 J Ep = m2x2 = 0.7 x 10-4 J

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Natural frequency & resonance

A particle is said to be undergoing free oscillations when the only external force acting on it is the restoring force The total energy remains constant at all points of time A free oscillation is one where an object or system oscillates in the absence of any damping forces, and it is said to oscillating in its natural frequency In real situations, frictional and other resistive forces cause the oscillators energy to be dissipated, and this energy is converted eventually into heat energy. The oscillations are said to be damped When one object vibrates at the same frequency as another it is said to be in resonance The swing of a frictionless pendulum is an example of a free oscillation.

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Resonance

In the absence of external forces to an oscillating system, the system oscillates at its natural frequency f0. The only forces acting are the internal forces of the oscillating system When an external force is applied to an oscillating system, the system is under forced oscillations and will vibrate at the frequency of the applied force rather than at the natural frequency of the system Whether or not the forcing frequency equals the natural frequency, the oscillations are said to be forced when a periodic force acts. When the forcing frequency is equal to the natural frequency, net energy is taken in and the amplitude of oscillation builds up further and the applied periodic force is said to have set the system in resonance. Under such condition, further resonance will result in more energy being taken in to build up the amplitude further. Resonance occurs when a system is forced to oscillate at its natural frequency by the driving frequency When resonance occurs, the amplitude of the resulting oscillations is a maximum as maximum energy is transferred from the forcing system E.g. Barton's pendulum only the pendulum with the same length as the original will oscillate with the biggest amplitude Applications wind instruments, excessive noise from a moving bus, radio & tv tuning The Tacoma Narrows suspension bridge in Washington State, USA in 1940 collapsed due to a moderate gale (of same frequency as natural frequency of bridge) setting the bridge 28 into resonance until the main span broke up

Damped oscillations
A damped oscillation is one where frictional forces present gradually slow down the oscillation and the amplitude decreases with time i.e. decreasing energy Damped oscillations are divided into under-damped, critically damped and over-damped oscillations An under-damped(lightly damped) oscillation is one where the amplitude of oscillation or displacement of the system decreases with time. Example: oscillation of a simple pendulum with the damping or dissipative force as air resistance In a critically damped system, oscillations are reduced to zero in the shortest possible time. Examples: moving coil ammeter or volt meter, shock absorber, door closer In an over-damped(heavy damping) system, a displacement from its equilibrium position takes a long time for the displacement to be reduced to zero. Example: door dampers
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Damped oscillations
Displacement vs Time Graph

over-damped

t under-damped critically-damped

Effects of damping on forced oscillations

Pg 277 Chris Mee fig 10.29 & 10.30 As the degree of damping increases:
The amplitude of oscillation at all frequencies is reduced The frequency at max amplitude shifts gradually towards lower frequencies The peak becomes flatter

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Electrical resonance
Electrical oscillators made from combinations of capacitors and inductors(coils) can also be forced into oscillations or be made to resonate This is the basis of tuning in electronic circuits which pick out the required transmission in a receiver The natural frequency of an electrical oscillator depends on the capacitor and inductance of the coil used. By varying the capacitance, we can tune in to different channels The range of frequencies selected depends on the damping which in turn depends on the resistance in the circuit

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