Direct Sensing

28. Direct sensing Content 28.1 Sensing devices 28.2 The ideal operational amplifier 28.3 Operational amplifier circuits 28.4 Output devices Learning outcomes Candidates should be able to: (a) show an understanding that an electronic sensor consists of a sensing device and a circuit that provides an output voltage (b) show an understanding of the change in resistance with light intensity of a light-dependent resistor (LDR) (c) sketch the temperature characteristic of a negative temperature coefficient thermistor (d) show an understanding of the action of a piezo-electric transducer and its application in a simple microphone (e) describe the structure of a metal-wire strain gauge (f) relate extension of a strain gauge to change in resistance of the gauge (g) show an understanding that the output from sensing devices can be registered as a voltage

(h) recall the main properties of the ideal operational amplifier (op-amp) (i) deduce, from the properties of an ideal operational amplifier, the use of an operational amplifier as a comparator (j) show an understanding of the effects of negative feedback on the gain of an operational amplifier (k) recall the circuit diagrams for both the inverting and the non-inverting amplifier for single signal input (l) show an understanding of the virtual earth approximation and derive an expression for the gain of inverting amplifiers (m) recall and use expressions for the voltage gain of inverting and of non-inverting amplifiers (n) show an understanding of the use of relays in electronic circuits (o) show an understanding of the use of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) as devices to indicate the state of the output of electronic circuits (p) show an understanding of the need for calibration where digital or analogue meters are used as output devices.

Direct sensing
This topic deals with how circuits incorporating sensing device/s that detect changes in the physical properties produce output voltages that will operate an output An electronic sensor or circuit may be thought of as made up of 3 parts namely; a sensing device, into a processing unit and to an output device

Sensing circuit - example

thermistor LDR Strain gauge

Potential divider circuit

LED Relay switch

piezoelectric

e.g. Thermal pot

SENSING DEVICE THERMISTOR PROCESSING UNIT POTENTIAL DIVIDER CIRCUIT OUTPUT VOLTAGE LED 1 (RED) Boil - LED 2 (YELLOW) warm

Sensing devices
There are simple sensors and complex sensors Simple sensors e.g. those detecting temperature in a thermostat or a sensor detecting light levels in an automatic switch for a lamp Complex sensors e.g. those detecting whether a car wheel is skidding in a braking system and the circuit controlling not only the brakes but also to stop the skidding and to stop further skidding The sensing device is the 1st stage of any electronic sensor and is the means by which whatever is to be detected or monitored is converted into an electrical signal i.e. a voltage Ideally, the generated voltage should be proportional to the external change causing it Sensing devices detect many different types of changes e.g. changes in length, mass, weight, force, velocity, acceleration, current, voltage, light intensity, temperature, sound level, humidity, pressure, strain, magnetic field We shall consider 4 sensing devices light dependent resistor(LDR), thermistor, piezo-electric transducer and the metal wire strain gauge
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LDR properties
Resistance

Lux
Symbol is as above It consists of 2 metal grids or electrodes that intersect each other whose space between is filled with a semiconductor material e.g. cadmium sulphide doped with copper When light is incident on the semiconductor material, the number of electrons in the semiconductor that are free to conduct increases Light intensity is measured in lux which is a unit used to measure the light power incident per unit area of a surface The higher the intensity of light on the LDR, the greater the number of electrons that can move freely hence as intensity of light increases, the resistance of the LDR decreases i.e. more current, same p.d. R decreases Typical LDR data: (a) normal room lighting 450 lux, LDR resistance 900 ohms (b) sunlight 28000 lux, LDR resistance 100 ohms
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Light-dependent resistor - LDR

Thermistor

Symbol is as above Resistance of most metals increases to a certain extent with rise in temperature i.e. positive temperature coefficient(ptc) Resistance of thermistor also changes with temperature but with negative temperature coefficient(ntc) Thermistors manufactured in various shapes and sizes including rods, discs and beads, are of 2 types (i) positive temp coefficient, ptc - R increases with temp rise (ii) negative temp coefficient, ntc - R decreases with temp rise Ptc made of ceramic or semiconductor Ntc made of semiconductor and metal oxides Typical thermistor data: (a) 20C thermistor resistance - 1800 ohms (b) 40C thermistor resistance - 900 ohms
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Thermistor

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Thermistor
Linear or non-linear? Variation with temperature of a typical thermistor is non-linear and in fact is approximately exponential over a limited range of temperature Which part of the graph shows resistance changes more with temperature?

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Piezo-electric effect
Piezo-electric devices contain a crystal which can expand and compress when external pressure is varied e.g. quartz The crystals structure is such that the centre of positive charges coincides with the centre of negative charges when not stressed When expanded, both centres will not coincide. When compressed, the centres will be in the opposite direction as compared to under expansion. The separation results in a voltage across the crystal surface and this effect is known as the piezo-electric effect

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Piezo-electric effect

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Piezo-electric transducer
A piezo-electric device/transducer is a sensor that detects differences in pressure (sound wave) Variation in pressure will result in an a.c voltage The magnitude of the voltage generated depends on the magnitude of the pressure on the crystal and the polarity depends on whether the crystal is compressed or expanded i.e. whether the pressure is greater than or less than the ambient pressure A transducer is any device that converts energy from one form to another The piezoelectric transducer converts mechanical energy (vibration) into electrical energy in the form of a.c voltages It also can convert electrical voltages back to vibration. Hence it acts as a receiver as well as an emitter. To detect the voltages, opposite faces of the crystal are coated with a metal (silver) and electrical connections are made to these metal films and since the voltages are very small they are amplified The crystal and its amplifier may be used as a simple microphone for converting sound signals into electrical signals
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Strain Gauge
In engineering, it is frequently required to test for the strains experienced in different parts of structures This is achieved by using a length of very fine wire embedded and sealed into a small rectangle of thin plastic known as a strain gauge, as shown below Its resistance changes when the gauge is stretched. The wire since it is strained increases in length together with the plastic. As the length increases the cross sectional area decreases causing an increase in the electrical resistance of the wire

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Strain Gauge

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Strain Gauge
R = L/A If the wire increases in length by only a small amount L, then the change in the cross-sectional area can be assumed to be negligible and the new resistance is given by
(R + R) = (L +L) /A,

By subtracting the above 2 expressions, the change in resistance R is given by R = L/A hence R L since it is assumed that A is a constant and is also a constant Since strain is proportional to the extension, then the strain is also proportional to the change in resistance

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Processing units
The change in the physical property of a sensing device must be processed in some way before the change can be displayed or measured or is used to control This is carried out by the processing unit which is some form of an electrical circuit that is connected to the sensing device which provides a voltage at its output If the voltage is small, it is usually necessary to amplify it or it may require further processing before the voltage can be used to control an output device 2 such circuits are the potential divider circuit and the operational amplifier circuit

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Potential divider as a processing unit of sensing device

A change in resistance of a sensing device results in a change of voltage across the sensor if the sensor is connected to the circuit and forms one part of a potential divider V = R/(R+F) E assuming internal resistance is negligible As the resistance of the sensing device increases, the output voltage increases

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Example
A potential divider consists of a battery of e.m.f. 6.00 V and negligible internal resistance connected in series with a resistor of resistance 120 ohms and a variable resistor of resistance 0 to 200 ohms. Determine the range of potential difference that can be obtained across the fixed resistor. Solution When the variable resistor is 0 ohm, p.d. across fixed resistor is = 6.00 V When the variable resistor is 200 ohms, p.d. across fixed resistor is = 120/(120 + 200) x 6.00 = 2.25 V Hence the range of potential difference across the fixed resistor is = 2.25 V to 6.00 V

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Operational amplifier(op-amp) as a processing unit

Any small change in voltage can be amplified using an electrical circuit incorporating a circuit called an operational amplifier (op-amp). It is referred to as an operational amplifier because the circuit can easily be made to carry out different operations e.g. acting as a switch, amplifying direct voltages, amplifying alternating voltages, comparing 2 voltages A key component in electronics is the transistor, which is a semiconductor. It can amplify or act as a switch An integrated circuit(IC) is a package that may have thousands of transistors and other components formed on a single chip of silicon An op-amp contains about 24 transistors together with resistors and capacitors. It is referred to as an integrated circuit because all the components are formed on a small slice of a semiconductor(e.g. silicon or germanium) with external connections to enable the op-amp to be connected into a circuit and the whole assembly is encapsulated An op-amp and some of its connections or terminals and its symbol is as shown below:

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Op-amp - actually how it looks

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Op-amp how it looks on the inside

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Terminals of the op-amp

The output voltage from a sensing circuit can be joined to any of the 2 inputs of an op-amp +ve input non-inverting input -ve input inverting input +ve and ve input terminals do not mean that the voltage connected to these terminals must be +ve and ve accordingly, but whether they invert or not the output voltage If V+ > V- the output is positive (+) If V+ < V- the output is negative (-) If V+ = V- the output is zero If only one input is in use and the other is at zero voltage,
A positive voltage on the inverting input causes a negative output voltage A positive voltage on the non-inverting input causes a positive output voltage

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cont
The power supply for an op-amp is a 3-terminal DC supply made up of 0 V earth and typically +/- 9 V. This a called a dual, or split, power supply. The op-amp is powered by the dual power supply. Current that flows within the op-amp comes from the power supply, not from inputs to the op-amp input terminals Power supply lines connect to the power supply

The common link between the two sets of batteries or power supplies is termed the zero-volt, or earth line. This forms the reference line from which all input and output voltages are measured
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cont
Output terminal connects to any output device, e.g. LED, relay, bulb

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5 main properties of an ideal op-amp

There are 5 main properties of an ideal op-amp: 1) Infinite input impedance 2) Zero output impedance 3) Infinite open-loop gain 4) Infinite bandwidth 5) Infinite slew rate In reality op-amps are not ideal.

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Input impedance
Impedance is similar to resistance but it is more than that. While a capacitor does not have resistance in a d.c. circuit, in an a.c. circuit it has reactance (similar to resistance, also in ). The combined resistance of a resistor and reactance of a capacitor is known as impedance (in ). Input impedance refers to the impedance between the two input terminals

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Infinite input impedance

Infinite input impedance means no current enters or leaves either of the inputs This means that connecting for example the output of a potential divider to the input of an op-amp will not affect the potential differences An ideal op-amp should have infinite input impedance. When a sensing circuit is joined to an op-amp, ideally no current should flow into the op-amp through the input terminals otherwise, the voltage in the sensing circuit will be altered This is analogous to a voltmeter where a voltmeter should have infinite resistance so that when joined across a component, it should draw very little current and thus no change occurs to the voltage it tries to measure In reality, the input impedance is in the range 106 1012 ohms

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Output impedance
Output impedance refers to the impedance inside the op-amp near the output terminal An ideal op-amp should have zero output impedance so that all the output voltage is seen across the load connected to the output This is analogous to a battery of zero internal resistance where all the voltage supplied by the battery should fall across the external circuit In reality, the output impedance is about 102 ohms

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Gain
Gain is defined as the ratio of output voltage to input voltage and the symbol is A i.e. how many times the output is greater than the input e.g. if the output is 9V and the input is 0.1 V, gain A = 9/.1 = 90 The way an op-amp is connected in a circuit will produce 2 different types of gain (a) open loop gain, symbol Ao and (b) closed loop gain, A Open-loop Closed-loop

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Infinite open-loop gain

An op-amp actually amplifies the difference between the two inputs to the op-amp, (V+ - V- ). That is why it is sometimes known as a differential amplifier. So Ao = Vout / (V+ - V- ) hence Vout = Ao (V+ - V- ) When there are no components connected between the output and the input, the gain that is measured is said to be open-loop gain (Closed-loop gain will be examined later) An ideal op-amp should have infinite open-loop gain which means that when there is only a very small input voltage, the output will have the same value as the supply voltage since the output of the op-amp cannot be greater than the supply voltage(from energy conservation) and the amplifier is said to be saturated In reality, the open-loop gain is not constant but is in the order of 105 for direct voltages(dc)
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Bandwidth
When a.c. voltage is connected to the two inputs of an op-amp, the output voltage is different for different frequencies of the ac voltage. The gain varies with the frequency, f Below is a graph of open-loop gain Ao versus frequency f

The range of frequencies over which the gain is constant is known as the bandwidth
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Infinite bandwidth
Infinite bandwidth means that all frequencies of the input are amplified equally This means that if an ac signal is applied to the input, then the output will have the same frequency but a larger amplitude In reality, the bandwidth is finite and not infinite

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Slew rate
When the input signal is changed, the output signal will also change The output voltage may not be in sync with the input voltage. When the input voltage has changed with time, the output voltage may not have changed yet An ideal op-amp should have infinite slew rate meaning no delay between changes in the input and consequent changes in the output. A high slew-rate implies a short time delay In reality, the slew-rate is about 10 V s-1 i.e. 107 V s-1

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Op-amp characteristics

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The op-amp as a comparator

An op-amp actually amplifies the difference between the two inputs to the op-amp, (V+ - V- ). That is why it is sometimes known as a differential amplifier. So Ao = Vout / (V+ - V- ) hence Vout = Ao (V+ - V- ) Consider the case where the non-inverting input V+ is 0.95 V, the inverting input V- is 0.94 V, open-loop gain A0 = 105, and the supply voltages at 6 V Using Vout = Ao (V+ - V- ) = 1000 V which from energy considerations is impossible as the output voltage can never exceed the power supply voltage. This means that the amplifier is saturated and the output voltage will be + 6 V, so if V+ > V- the output is + Vsupply and if V- > V+ the output is Vsupply Because this circuit compares the voltages applied to the non-inverting 37 and the inverting inputs and then gives an output it is called a comparator

comparator
When a circuit incorporating an op-amp is used as a comparator, it is usual to connect each of the inputs to a potential divider +6V 10 k RR - -+ +

R R -6V

output

The 2 resistors of equal resistance provide an input voltage of 3 V at the inverting input When the LDR is in darkness its resistance is greater than 10 k, hence the voltage at the non-inverting input is greater than 3 V and the output will be at 6 V. In daylight the resistance of the LDR will be less than 10 k and the voltage at the noninverting input will be less than 3 V and the output will switch to - 6 V The output therefore depends on the level of light illumination and the values of the resistors in the potential divider. In practice one of the 2 resistors would be a variable 38 resistor

Feedback
Feedback is a process whereby a fraction of the output of any device is fed back to the input so as to assist in the control of the device As humans, much of our learning is through feedback; e.g to pick up an object we stretch out our hand and at the same time look at the hand and object, and the visual signal is fed back to the brain to provide control for the hand This is a continuous process of refining the position of the hand relative to the object

Vin

add

gain Ao

Vout

feedback fraction 39

Op-amp and feedback

For an amplifier circuit a fraction of the output signal Vout is fed back and added to the input signal Vin. Since the amplifier has open-loop gain Ao, it amplifies whatever voltage there is at the input, so Vout = Ao x (amplifier input) = Ao x (Vin + Vout) which gives Vout(1-Ao) = Ao x Vin Rearranging, Vout/Vin = Ao/(1-Ao) and Vout/Vin is called the voltage gain If the fraction is negative, then (1-Ao) is greater than unity and the overall gain of the amplifier circuit is less than the open-loop gain of the op-amp itself. This process is known as negative feedback Negative feedback can be achieved by feeding part of the output of the op-amp back to the inverting input Although negative feedback reduces the gain of an amplifier, it has a number of benefits:
Increased bandwidth(the range of frequencies for which the gain is constant) Less distortion of the output(output signal directly prop to input signal) Greater stability(less affected by environment in the circuit)

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Concept of virtual earth

Since the open-loop gain of the op-amp is very large, then the input voltages at the non-inverting and inverting inputs must be almost the same. The non-inverting input is connected to the zero-volt line(earth line) and therefore the input is zero This means that the inverting input must be very nearly zero volts(or earth) and so the point between Rin and Rf is known as a virtual earth The input impedance of the op-amp is infinite which means that there is no current in either the inverting or the non-inverting inputs, meaning that all the current from or to the input signal to the circuit must pass through the feedback resistor to the input

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Inverting op-amp configuration

Vin either positive or negative, is fed to V- of op-amp while V+ is earthed. Applicable to ac and dc voltage as well A part or whole of the output is fed back to the inverting input of the opamp by means of the resistor Rf. This is called negative feedback because the signal being fed back partly cancels the input signal The resistors Rin and Rf act as a potential divider between the input and the output of the op-amp This feedback voltage superimposes with the original input voltage, resulting in a smaller value. The output is therefore also smaller

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Inverting op-amp with negative feedback

Current in Rin= current in Rf , hence p.d. across Rin = p.d. across Rf Rin Rf where Rin and Rf are the resistances The potential at P is zero (since virtual earth) and so Vin 0 = 0 Vout Rin Rf Hence the overall voltage gain of the amplifier circuit is given by Voltage gain A = Vout = - Rf or Vout = - Vin Rf Vin Ri n Rin The gain does not depend on the characteristics of the op-ampbut only on the 2 resistors, and since the output is the inverse of the input, the amplifier is referred to as an inverting op-amp and the output voltage is 180o out of phase() with the input voltage 43

Non-inverting op-amp with negative feedback

For this configuration, the input voltage is applied directly to the noninverting input Negative feedback is achieved by means of the potential divider resistors R1 and Rf Based on Kirchhoffs 1st law, If = I1
Vf/Vout = R1/(R1 + Rf) therefore Vout/Vf = (R1 + Rf)/R1 but Vf is approximately equal to Vin therefore Vout/Vin = (R1 + Rf)/R1 = 1 + Rf/R1 and the output is in phase with the input i.e. Voltage gain, A = 1 + Rf R1

+
Vf

Rf

Vin

Vout
R1

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Alternative derivation for non-inverting opamp

Vf = R1/(Rf +R1) x Vout .(1) Voltage input between the 2 inputs = VT therefore VT = Vin Vf ............(2) Now Vout = A0 x VT therefore VT = Vout/A0 (3) Equating (2) & (3), we get V0/A0 = Vin Vf
and rearranging, Vf = Vin V0/A0 ........(4)

Now substituting (1) into (4), we get R1/(Rf + R1)Vout = Vin V0/A0 Rearranging, Vin = V0(R1/(R1 + Rf)) + V0/A0 = V0[(R1/(R1 + Rf) + 1/A0] since A0 > 105, 1/A0 is negligible Therefore A = V0/Vin = (R1 + Rf)/R1 = 1 + Rf/R1
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Example
The magnitude of the gain of an inverting amplifier is 25. The supply voltage to the operational amplifier is 9 V and the non-inverting input is at earth potential. Calculate the output voltage of the amplifier circuit for an input voltage at the inverting input of: (a) + 40 mV (b) - 80 mV (c) - 1.2 V
Solution (a) - 1.0 V (b) + 2.0 V (c) + 9.0 V (amplifier is saturated)
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Op-amp as a summing/adder circuit

Inverting op-amp with negative feedback can be used as a summing or adder circuit where a number of input voltages can be added up.

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cont..
In a mixer for example, several input from microphones, guitars and keyboards can be added in a summing op-amp and amplified to produce a sound track. Three input voltages V1, V2 and V3 send currents I1, I2 and I3 through three resistances R1, R2 and R3 respectively. I1 = V1/R1, I2 = V2/R2 and I3 = V3/R3 If = 0 Vout = - Vout Rf Rf Since current does not flow into the op-amp If = I1 + I2 + I3 Vout / Rf = V1/R1 + V2/R2 + V3/R3 hence the output is the sum of the 3 input voltages i.e. a summing circuit or an adder circuit

R1, R2 and R3 can be varied to increase the amplification of an input signal.

If Rf > R1 the signal through R1 (e.g. a keyboard) will have a greater effect than other inputs.
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Output devices
Circuits incorporating op-amps produce an output voltage If this output voltage is connected across some form of resistor, there will be a current from the output of the op-amp to the resistor, which can then be used to operate output devices such as relays, warning lamps e.g LEDs, digital/analogue meters, motors etc. Output current usually cannot exceed about 25 mA otherwise the op-amp would be destroyed. Op-amps ICs are designed and built to contain an output resistor so that, should the output be shorted, the op-amp will not be damaged.

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Relay switch as an output device

In order that electronic circuits e.g. an op-amp may be used to switch on and off appliances that require large currents to operate them, a relay may be used. A relay is an electromagnetic switch that uses a small current to switch on or off a larger current. The small current energises an electromagnet that operates contacts, switching on or off the larger current.(symbol for relay on right) The diode D1 conducts only when the output is positive with respect to earth and thus the relay coil is energised only when the output is positive. When the current in the relay coil is switched off, a back e.m.f. is generated in the coil that could damage the op-amp. A diode D2 is connected across the coil to protect the op-amp from this back e.m.f.

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The light emitting diode(LED) as an output device

There are many instances when all that is required of a sensor is a visible indicator i.e. a lamp when a high or low is detected i.e. op-amp is saturated Filament lamps not only dissipate a large amount of power(>100 mA) but also are not very robust on multiple operations The light emitting diode(LED) which is available in many colours, is a semiconductor device that is very robust, reliable and dissipates little power A LED emits light only when it is forward biased and the typical maximum current is 20 mA A LED may be damaged if the reverse-bias voltage exceeds approximately 5 V (called breakdown voltage) but is dependent on the device A LED with an in-built resistor to protect the LED is often used to indicate the state of output of an op-amp

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Example
A LED can take a current of 0.01 A, which produces a 2 V drop across it. If an op-amp circuits output voltage is 9 V, what is the value of the protection resistor that should be used?

Solution
R = 7/0.01 = 700 ohms

Digital and analogue meters as output devices

When the output of an op-amp does not saturate, the output voltage can be used to indicate the magnitude of whatever is being sensed e.g. level of fuel in a tank A digital or analogue voltmeter for example connected between the opamp output and earth will indicate the output voltage The output voltage will be proportional to the input to the processing unit which is dependent on the magnitude of whatever is being sensed As the digital or analogue voltmeter reads a potential difference and not the quantity that is being monitored and measured, the voltmeter reading is unlikely to vary linearly with the change in this quantity and hence the voltmeter needs to be calibrated A calibration curve of for example the temperature against the voltage needs to be plotted so that we can read off the temperature corresponding to a voltage reading directly
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Question

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Exercise

The LED's L1 and L2 emit light when the output from the appropriate operational amplifier is positive and high. When the thermistor T, which has a negative temperature coefficient, is at 70C, the potential difference across the resistor R is 3.5 V. (i) Explain why, when the thermistor is at 70 C, L1 emits light and L2 does not. (ii) The temperature of the thermistor is raised and there is a change of state of one or more of the LED's. State and explain what change is observed. (iii) Suggest one use for the above circuit
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