Hydrology

1. Hydrological cycle
2. Drainage Basin
3. Water Balance
4. Storm Hydrograph
5. Flooding
Hydrological cycle
What is hydrology?

What is hydrological
Cycle?

Define all the terms

Is a hydrological cycle an
Opened or closed system?
Why?

Why is it called a system?

 Hydrology and Hydrological cycle

• Hydrology : study of water

(2) Hydrological cycle: continuous

movement of water from land, sea and
air, back to land and it continues.
 Why is it called a system?

The Hydrological cycle is called a system

because it has a set of components which
are links to one another, inputs, outputs and
process (transfer) and storage.
 ATMOSPHERE
(ATMOSPHERE STORE)

E P T

HYDROSPHERE HYDROSPHERE BIOSPHERE

(OCEAN STORE) SURFACE STORE (VEGETATION
(LAKE, RIVERS & ICE) STORE)

LITHOSPHERE
(GROUNDWATER
STORE)
Key:
E-Evaporation
P-Precipitation
T-Transpiration

THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE AS A CLOSED SYSTEM

Hydrological cycle is a closed system. Why?
2. Water circulates continuously & the
processes is fuel by energy from the sun

2. There is no gain or loses in the cycle

3. There is a fixed amount of water.

 Water movement in H.C
http://www.nwlg.org/pages/resources/geog/hydro_cycle/hydro/cycle.htm

PRECIPITATION
Evapotranspiration
interception

transpiration evaporation
evaporation
throughfall
Aeration zone stemflow
Surface storage
Run-off
Zone A Infiltration

Percolation SOIL
Water table Through flow

BEDROCK seepage
baseflow
Zone B
Stream flow
Groundwater GROUNDWATER
zone
 Terms
Aeration zone: zone between soil moisture zone and
capillary zone above water table.

Water-table: it separates Ground water zones that lies

below and Aeration zone /capillay fringe lines
above.

Ground water zone: Precipitation that succeeds in

moving from the soil layer down into the underlying bedrock
will at some point reach an area of permanent saturation
that is known as the groundwater zone
 Terms:
• Precipitation: Form major inputs into the system,
for example rainfall and snow.

• Groundwater flow/baseflow: water transferred

slowly laterally below water table.

• Infiltration: The maximum rate at which water can

pass through the soil.

• Percolation: Water reaches underlying soil or rock

layers, which tend to be more compact (slow
movement) create groundwater storage.

• Throughflow: Water that flow laterally, parallel to

the earth’s surface.
 Terms
• Interflow: The water, derived from precipitation, that
infiltrates the soil surface and then moves laterally
through the upper layers of soil above the water
table until it reaches a stream channel or returns to
the surface at some point downslope from its point
of infiltration.

• Evaporation: physical process by which moisture

loss into atmosphere from water surfaces, including
vegetation, soil due to sun’s heat and effects of air
movement.

• Throughfall: Water reaches the ground when it

drops off the leaves.

• Stemflow: Water reaches the ground when it flows

down the trunk.
 Terms:
• Transpiration: biological process by which water is
lost from a plant through stomata in its leaves.

• Interception: the first raindrops of a rainfall event

will fall on vegetation which shelters the underlying
ground. (interception storage)

• Overlandflow: Excess water which flow over earth

surface when precipitation is very heavy or when
soil becomes saturated.

• Seepage: slow movement of water through the soil.

• Evapotranspiration: Moisture which is loss directly

into atmosphere from water surface by process of
evaporation and by process of transpiration from
vegetation.
Water movement throughout
drainage basin.
• Look at the diagram:
1. List down input & output

2.Which are the storages &

flow.

3. How does water from

surface storage reaches
groundwater storage?

4. Name the flow marked A

and B.

5. Define terms shown in

diagrams.
Inputs: Precipitation

Outputs: evapotranspiration, river runoff.

Transfers: infiltration, percolation, throughflow,

baseflow, overlandflow, baseflow, throughfall and
channel flow.

Storage: groundwater storage, soil water storage,

Interception storage,surface storage, vegetation
storage & channel storage.
 Terms:
• Soil moisture storage: amount of water held in the soil at one time.

• Interception storage: first raindrops of a rainfall event that fall on

vegetation which shelters the underlying ground. (water collected in
leaves of trees)

• Surface storage storage: rainfall that are not intercepted by

vegetation reaches the ground surface and fill in small surface
depression and excess water will overflow as run-off.

• Ground water storage: water which is held in pores and cervices

and its underlying bedrock.
 1. Name the flows shown
as A, B & C.

2. Describe what is meant by

percolation.

3.Describe and explain the

occurrence of the flows A,
B and C.

Flow of water in a cross section of soil and bedrock

Infiltration occurs:
2. Soil is less saturated
3. Porous soil, permeable
4. If precipitation exceed infiltration rate, run-off will occur.
(depend on antecedent pp-water already in soil, porosity,
Vegetation cover and soil surface; ploughed, crusted, cracked)

Percolation occurs:
3. After water infiltrates into soil
4. Deep in the soil where soil is compact (as it reaches
Underlying soil/rock layers) create groundwater storage)
-permeability decrease thus slow movement.
Overland flow/surface run-off occurs:
2. Heavy rainfall
3. Soil is saturated
3. Water excess, thus overflow on surface

Baseflow:
(water slowly transferred laterally as
baseflow/groundwater flow)
Occurs:
4.water-table rises above streambed
5.Groundwater discharged or escaped into
stream by seepage.
Throughflow:
(Horizontal or lateral water movement
above water table-later join stream)
Occurs:
5.Ground become saturated
6.Soil permeability decreased with increase
in depth.
Drainage basin
A. What is a drainage basin?
B. Is a drainage basin a closed/opened
system?
 H.C & Drainage basin
Drainage basin is part of the hydrological cycle (local scale)

Drainage basin is used to describe the water movement for hydrological cycle

Drainage basin is an extent of land where water from rain or snow melt drains
downhill into a body of water, such as a river, lake, reservoir, estuary, wetland,
sea or ocean.

Each drainage basin is separated topographically

from adjacent basins by a geographical barrier such
as a ridge, hill or mountain, which is known as a water divide.

• Other terms that are used to describe a drainage basin are

catchment, catchment area, catchment basin, drainage area,
river basin, water basin and watershed
 Drainage basin
Drainage basin: the area that is drained by a
river and its tributaries.

It is an opened system. Because:

5. It has a series of inputs, processes and
outputs.
 Water balance
River discharge: amount of water originating from
precipitation that reaches channel by direct pp, overland
flow, throughflow and baseflow.

Equation:
Discharge : Velocity X Area (cross section area)
(Cumec = cubic metre per second)

River discharge in drainage basin is a product of relationship between

precipitation and evapotranspiration and other factors that control
amount of stores in river basin.

This is called water balance.

 Water balance
• What? State of equilibrium in Drainage basin between
inputs & outputs.:
(Drainage basin discharge : Input = Outputs)

-soil moisture budget graph/water balance graph

Equation:
P = Q + E +/- change in storage
P: precipitation
Q: run-off, E = Evapotranspiration
Water balance graph
(soil moisture budget)
1. Actual evapotranspiration (AET): the loss of moisture to the atmosphere by
the processes of evapotration and transpiration which actually takes place.

2. Potential evapotranspiration (PET): the maximum amount of

evapotranspiration which occur if an adequate supply of water were
continuously available. (In Desert PET >AET amount of water is limited)

3. Soil moisture surplus: occurs when the soil water store is full and thus there
is surplus of water for plants, runoff and groundwater recharge. (PP>PET)

4. Soil moisture utilisation: Plants (and people) use moisture stored in the soil,
leaving it depleted. (AET >PP)

5. Soil moisture deficiency: Equivalent to the extra water which would be

needed to maintain maximum plant growth. There is little or no water available
for plant growth (irrigation could make good this deficit) (PET > AET)

6. Soil moisture recharge: The soil water store starts to fill again after a period
of deficiency

7. Field capacity: The moisture a freely drained soil can hold after all free or
gravity water has drained away. Such moisture is held by tension around soil
particles, mainly as capillary water.
 PE & AE
• Potential Evapotranspiration:
Evapotranspiration which occur when
unlimited water is available.

• Actual Evapotranspiration:
Evapotranspiration occurs when limited
amount of water is available.
Soil moisture budget
Look at the diagram (Waugh, p:60)
1. In which months is there a water surplus?
J, F, M, A, N, D (PP>ET, excess not used by plant; surface run-off &
rise in river level)

2. Why is there soil moisture recharge in October?

Soil moisture utilisation-May-Sept (autumn-first surplus
water recharged by soil)

3. When is field capacity attained?

(The maximum amount of water soil can hold)
November

4. Why is a water deficit not shown on the

graph? (In summer ET>p thus water utilised by plant & humans –
Water from soil (store) depleted, river level fall)
P>ET
 Importances:
When:
Water surplus: wet soil, increase river level, run-
off.

Water Deficit: Dry soil, fall in river’s level, Drought.

Importances:
8. Period of water deficit/drought & flood

10. Changes in storage

3. Implementation for irrigation, flood control,

pollution control
Occurance of +ve & -ve water
balance
Positive water balance:
PP(input) >ET (loss)

Negative water balance:

ET > PP
 Storm hydrograph

Bankfull
discharge

Rising
limb Falling limb

Stormflow/
runoff

Base flow
Time of rise
Approach segment/Antecedent
flow
 Storm hydrograph
1. Line graph-discharge in cumec
2. Rising limb: rising flood water in a river
3. Peak flow: maximum discharge in the river
4. Recession/falling limb: falling flood water in a
river
5. Lag time: time difference between peak rain
storm & peak flow of river
6. Base flow: normal discharge of the river
7. Storm flow (overland flow and throughflow)
How to interpret storm hydrograph
(A) Rising limb
(B) Recession limb
(C) Lag time
(D) Rainfall intensity
(E) Peak flow compare to base flow
(F) Recovery rate, back to baseflow
(overland flow, throughflow and base
flow)
 Interpretation of graph
Approach segment/
Antecedent flow rate = (Discharge of river before storm)

Time Storm begins

to (negligible response)
rise
Rising limbs =rapid increase in discharge
(surface runoff & throughflow reaches stream
Storm
flow Lag time (max pp & peak discharge)

Peak discharge =river reaches maximum level

Bankfull discharge River level reaches top-further increase-flood.

Falling/recession limb =Segment of graph-discharge decrease & river falls.

(less steep than R.L-throughflow release into stream)
Return to
=slow respond to storm, continuous released G.W to
Baseflow
Maintain river flow during low Pp.
 Factors influencing shape of
Hydrographs:

4. Size of drainage basin

2. Soil types-sandy/clayey

• Geology-permeable
or impermeable

4. Gradient-steep/gentle

5. Vegetation cover

6. Urbanisation

•clue-look at infiltration rate, run-off

lead to high/low discharge & shorter
or longer lag time (time taken for
The river to fill up with water)
Basin size / (i) Elongated & circular drainage basin
Elongated shape basin has lower peak
Flow and longer lag time than circular one
shape Of the same size. (since it is narrower
Width & takes longer time for water to reach
Stream)
BASIN SHAPE/SIZE

(ii) Large & small size basin.

Large basin receive much precipitation
water than small size basin thus much
Water overflow on surface. But it takes
longer distance for water to travel to reach
Trunk of river (stream) thus has longer lag
time
Relief
In steep slope basin,
channel flow faster
down steep slope
therefore it has steep
rising limb & shorter lag-
time compare to gentle
slope basin.
Drainage Density
Density (no. of tributaries)
Drainage basin with high
drainage density allows
rapid run-off/overland
flow.
(shorter lag time & high
peak discharge)
Land use
Urbanisation: surface
covered with concrete & tarmac thus form
impermeable surface thus create steep rising limb
& shorter lag time.

Gutter or drains carry water quickly to nearest

river.

Small streams canalised so water flows away

more quickly or culverted which limit amount of
water to pass through at one time.

Afforestation: intercepts precipitation, creates

shallow rising limb & longer lag time.(less run-off)*

(Forest intercept 80% compare to arable land only

intercept 10%)
 *Vegetation cover
Vegetation help prevent flooding by
intercepting rainfall (store in leaves before
evaporates) –less run-off occur.
i.e. T. Rainforests (80%, 30% evaporates) &
Arable land (20%)

Interception less in winter deciduous trees

shed its leaves & crops harvested to expose
bare earth.

Plant roots, expecially trees, reduce throughflow by taking

up water from the soil.
 Deforestation
• Flooding occur in deforested areas.
E.g. Flooding in Bangladesh due to removal
of trees in Nepal & other Himalayan areas.
 Climate
Precipitation:
Short intense rainstorms produce rapid
overland flow & steep rising limb.

Temperature: Extreme temperature (low/high)

Ground hard (frozen/baked) thus cause rapid run-off
(shorter lag time)

Snow on the ground acts as store produce longer lag time

& shallow rising limb but once thaw rising limb become
steeper
 Tidal condition
What is time & when occurs?
Rise & fall in sea level due to gravitational
pull between moon and the sun.

Spring tide: when moon and sun are aligned

thus create strong gravitational pull which
causes rise or very low tides. (full moon,
new moon)
 How spring tide effect storm
hydrograph
During high spring tides it blocks normal exit
of water flow thus extending length of time
for river basin to return to base flow.

Prevent flood water to escape into sea.

Floodwater built up in lower part of valley.
Storm surge occurs when high tides coincide
with gale-force winds blowing onshore
And a narrow estuary.
 Soil types:
Sandy soil with large pore spaces, allow
infiltration and do not encourage flooding.

Clays have much smaller pore spaces &less

well connected, reduce infiltration and
throughflow, but encourages surface runoff
& increase risk of flooding
 Rock types
Rocks that allow water to pass through are
said to be permeable.
• Porous e.g. sandstone and chalk,
contain numerous pores able to fill with
water & store water.
• Pervious e.g. Carboniferous limestone,
which allow water to flow along bedding
planes and down joints within rock,
although the rock itself is impervious.
 Rock type
Both porous and pervious rocks permit rapid
infiltration, thus there is little run-off and
limited number of surface stream.

In contrast impermeable rocks e.g. granite

do not allow water to pass through them &
so produce more surface runoff and greater
number of streams.
 Catchments of rivers X & Y hydrographs over
24 hours of the two rivers.

Using both diagram explain why the

discharge of the two rivers are different

Explain how each of these influence Describe the differences between

storm hydrograph: the discharges of rivers X and Y in
Drainage basin shape, geology, response to the rainfall
rainfall intensity, drainage density
 Types of soil & rocks
* Soil: Clayey soil acts impermeable with small pore space compare to
sandy soil but stored much water. Clayey soil has shorter lag time
(much run-off)

Rocks:
Permeable rocks –rapid infiltration & little overland flow
therefore shows shallow & gentle rising limb (longer lag
time & low peak discharge) e.g. Chalk

Impermeable e.g. shale, limestone.

*impermeable can be permeable-pervious (joints & bedding

planes)
 Flood
 What is flooding?

 Why occur?

 How to predict & Method of prevention?

 Students to read and find out from internet / textbook

case studies ; UK and Bangladesh:

1. Cause; Physical &human causes

2. Flood management & problems

What is flooding?
A body of water that rises to overflow land not
normally submerged.

Why does it occur?

1. During & after torrential rainfall.
•Very heavy rainfall, often produced by convectional
thunderstorms, tropical cyclones or monsoons, lead to flash
flooding.
•But also inability of drainage system to with huge amount
of water. (natural/unnatural)

2. Costal flooding:
• Low lying areas vulnerable to flooding.
•Heavy rainfall and storm surges.
•Tsunami (sudden displacement of ocean floor which sends
waves out in all directions).
3. River flooding:
River channel no longer able to contain the water flowing within it.
Excess water sweeps over banks and onto adjacent floodplain.

Factors that can increase river flooding:

1. Heavy & prolonged rainfall

3. A reduction in channel size.

5. The silting of channels, by excessive soil erosion

7. Action of landslips in displacing water in lakes or blocking

channels.

9. An increase in storm flow due to urbanisation

 Factors that can increase river flooding:

6. A reduction in size of floodplain by development.

7. Blocking of bridges & culvert entrances by debris

transported by river.

8. Failure of flood defence structures such as dams &

embankments.

9. Drainage basin: steep slope, impermeable bedrock,

Saturated or frozen soil, and deforestation encourage
rapid transfer of water to river channel.
 Flood
• Explain how river floods might be
predicted. Giving examples, describe the
methods which may be used to reduce the
effects of flooding.
• Describe the main features of river flood
plains and explain why flood plains may
present problems for human settlements.
 Human activities of flow
• Suggest how human activities might affect
flows within a river channel.
• How can changes in land use affect flows
and stores in a drainage basin?
• How can the abstraction (removal) and the
storage of water by humans affect flows
and stores within a drainage basin.
• Explain how urbanisation can affect river
channel flows.