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Key Concepts
In cells, the endergonic reactions needed for life are paired with exergonic reactions requiring ATP.
Cellular respiration produces ATP from molecules with high potential energy often glucose.
Cellular respiration has four components: 1. Glycolysis 2. Pyruvate processing 3. The citric acid cycle 4. Electron transport and chemiosmosis
Cellular Respiration:
Key Concepts
Respiration and fermentation are carefully regulated. Fermentation pathways allow glycolysis to continue when the lack of an electron acceptor shuts down electron transport chains.
Introducing ATP
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the cellular currency for energy it provides the fuel for most cellular activities.
The amount of potential energy in an electron is based on its position relative to positive and negative charges. Electrons closer to negative charges (from other electrons) and farther from positive charges (in nuclei of nearby atoms), have higher potential energy.
In general, a molecules potential energy is a function of its electrons configuration and position.
Hydrolysis of the bond between the two outermost phosphate groups results in formation of ADP and Pi (inorganic phosphate, H2PO4) in a highly exergonic reaction. The released phosphate group is transferred to a protein.
Energy released during ATP hydrolysis is transferred to a protein during phosphorylation. This phosphorylation usually causes a change in the proteins shape.
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) is reduced to form NADH. NADH readily donates electrons to other molecules and is thus called an electron carrier and has reducing power.
In cells, glucose is oxidized through a long series of carefully controlled redox reactions. The resulting change in free energy is used to synthesize ATP from ADP and Pi. Together, these reactions comprise cellular respiration.
4. Electron transport and chemiosmosis compounds that were reduced in steps 13 are oxidized in reactions leading to ATP production.
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All of the enzymes needed for glycolysis are found in the cytosol.
In glycolysis, glucose is broken down into two 3-carbon molecules of pyruvate, and the potential energy released is used to phosphorylate ADP to form ATP.
In the energy investment phase, two molecules of ATP are consumed, and glucose is phosphorylated twice, forming fructose1,6-bisphosphate. In the energy payoff phase: Sugar is split to form two pyruvate molecules. Two molecules of NAD+ are reduced to NADH. Four molecules of ATP are formed by substrate-level phosphorylation (net gain of 2 ATP).
Feedback Inhibition
Feedback inhibition occurs when an enzyme in a pathway is inhibited by the product of that pathway. Cells that are able to stop glycolytic reactions when ATP is abundant can conserve their stores of glucose for times when ATP is scarce.
Phosphofructokinase has two binding sites for ATP: 1. The active site, where ATP phosphorylates fructose-6phosphate, resulting in the synthesis of fructose-1,6bisphosphate 2. A regulatory site
High ATP concentrations cause ATP to bind at the regulatory site, changing the enzymes shape and dramatically decreasing the reaction rate at the active site.
Pyruvate Processing
Pyruvate processing is the second step in glucose oxidation. It is catalyzed by the enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase in the mitochondrial matrix. In the presence of O2, pyruvate undergoes a series of reactions that results in the product molecule acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA). During these reactions, another molecule of NADH is synthesized, and one of the carbon atoms in pyruvate is oxidized to CO2.
Citrate (the first molecule in the cycle) is formed from pyruvate and oxaloacetate (the last molecule in the cycle).
The citric acid cycle completes glucose oxidation. The energy released by the oxidation of one acetyl CoA molecule is used to produce 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, and 1 GTP, which is then converted to ATP.
To summarize, the citric acid cycle starts with acetyl CoA and ends with CO2. The potential energy that is released is used to produce NADH, FADH2, and ATP. When energy supplies are high, the cycle slows down.
However, most of glucoses original energy is contained in the electrons transferred to NADH and FADH2, which then carry them to oxygen, the final electron acceptor.
O2 is the final electron acceptor. The transfer of electrons along with protons to oxygen forms water.
Oxidative Phosphorylation
The energy released as electrons move through the ETC is used to pump protons across the plasma membrane into the intermembrane space, forming a strong electrochemical gradient. The protons then move through the enzyme ATP synthase, driving the production of ATP from ADP and Pi.
Because this mode of ATP production links the phosphorylation of ADP with NADH and FADH2 oxidation, it is called oxidative phosphorylation.
As the F1 unit spins, its subunits change shape, and catalyze the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP.
Fermentation
In most organisms, cellular respiration cannot occur without oxygen. Fermentation, a metabolic pathway that regenerates NAD+ from stockpiles of NADH, allows glycolysis to continue producing ATP in the absence of oxygen. Fermentation occurs when pyruvate or a molecule derived from pyruvate accepts electrons from NADH. This transfer of electrons oxidizes NADH to NAD+. With NAD+ present, glycolysis can continue to produce ATP via substrate-level phosphorylation.