BASIC CONCEPTS IN LOGIC

Engineering a culture of Reasoning

UNIT 1

LOGIC
The following are two (2) definitions of logic: 1. Logic is the study of methods for evaluating whether the premises of an argument adequately support (or provide good evidence for) its conclusion (Howard-Snyder and Wasserman, 2009). 2. The paraphrased version of this definition says that; logic is roughly the study of methods for evaluating arguments (Howard-Snyder and Wasserman, 2009).

LOGIC
3. Logic is the science of reasoning (Pocket Oxford English Dictionary).

Dissecting Definition of Logic

Argument

An argument is a set of statement s where some of the statement s are intended to support another.
An argument may be split into two (2) main areas: 1. Premises 2. Conclusion Argument

An argument is a set of statement s where some of the statement s, called the premises, are intended to support another, called the conclusion.
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Dissecting Definition of Logic

Example of an argument: Every logic book has at least one sensible example. The power of logic is a logic book, so, The Power of Logic contains at least one (1) sensible example. 1. This argument has two (2) premises i.e., the two (2) 1st sentences. 2. The sentence that follows the word so is the conclusion.
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Propositions & Sentences

Proposition- A proposition is a truth or falsehood
that may or may not be expressed in a sentence (Howard-Snyder and Wasserman). In other words, propositions are expressions that are bearers of truth value; the things that are really true or false.

Proposition- A statement expressing a judgement or

opinion (Pocket Oxford English Dictionary).
EXAMPLE 1. The car is blue 2. The grass is green 3. You are kind

Dissecting Definition of Logic

What is a Statement? A statement is a declarative sentence which is either true (describing things as they are) or false (describing things in ways other than they are). Example: 1. Some people are smart 2. No one is smart 3. Some people weigh up to 400 pounds. NB: none of the sentences are suggestions, commands nor questions.

Deductive and Inductive Arguments

Since there are two (2) ways that the premises of an argument can support the conclusion, we can distinguish between two (2) kinds of arguments. These are deductive and inductive arguments. Deductive Argument A deductive argument is one in which the premises are intended to guarantee the conclusion. Example - All philosophers like logic. Ned is a philosopher. So, Ned likes logic.
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Deductive and Inductive Arguments

Inductive Argument An inductive argument is one in which the premises are intended to make the conclusion probable, without guaranteeing it. Examples - Most philosophers like logic. Ned is a philosopher. So, Ned likes logic. - Some Americans work in business. Donald Trump is an American. So, Donald Trump works in business.
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Valid and Invalid Arguments

Valid Arguments A valid argument is one in which it is necessary that, if the premises are true, then the conclusion is true. Valid Arguments A valid argument is a deductive argument in which the premises succeed in guaranteeing the conclusion. There are three (3) things to note about these concepts are: 1. There is a necessary connection between the
premises and the conclusion. 2. The truth of the conclusion is absolutely guaranteed by the truth of the premises. 3. It does not say that the premises and conclusion of a valid argument are in fact true or are necessarily true. Rather, it says, if the premises are true, then 10 the conclusion is necessarily true.

Valid and Invalid Arguments

Valid - If an argument is either Sound or logical it is valid: 1. Soundness means; that both premise and conclusion are in fact true = Valid 2. Logical means; the premise is true or false but it still guarantees the conclusion ( that is, conclusion still follows from premise) = valid

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Valid and Invalid Arguments

Argument valid with true premise and true conclusion. - Example - If Harry loved Dumbledore, then Harry was sad when Dumbledore died. So, Harry was sad when Dumbledore died. Argument is valid with false premise and false conclusion. - Example - All sharks are birds. All birds are politicians. So, all sharks are politicians (conclusion guaranteed by premises).

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Valid and Invalid Arguments

Invalid Arguments An invalid argument is one in which it is not necessary that, if the premises are true, then the conclusion is true. Invalid Argument with true premises and true conclusion Example - Some Americans work in business. Donald Trump is an American. So, Donald Trump works in business (conclusion true but not guaranteed by premises).

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Valid, Invalid Arguments & Truth

Valid Argument
(Premises guaranteeing conclusion)
True premises True conclusion If Harry loved Dumbledore, then Harry was sad when Dumbledore died. So, Harry was sad when Dumbledore died. All sharks are birds. All birds are politicians. So, all sharks are politicians. All dogs are ants. All ants are mammals. So, all dogs are mammals.

Invalid Argument
(Premises do not guarantee conclusion)
Some Americans work in business. Donald Trump is an American. So, Donald Trump works in business.

False premises False conclusion False premises True conclusion True premises False conclusion Unknown truth value

Every genius is a philosopher. Homestar Runner is a philosopher. So, Homestar Runner is a genius. Everything coloured is red. Stephen Colbert is a mortician. So, Stephen Colbert is hilarious. All dogs are animals. All cats are animals. Hence, all dogs are cats.

All of the Cappadocians accepted perichoresis.Basil was a Cappadocians. So, Basil

Some hylidae are heterophoric. Maggie is heterophoric. So, Maggie 14 is a hylidae.

Sound & Unsound Arguments

The following are the conditions for sound and unsound arguments;

Sound Argument - A sound argument is a valid argument in which all the premises are true. Valid + All Premises True = Sound Unsound Argument - An unsound argument is one that either is invalid or has at least one false premise.
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Arguments Summary
Arguments

Valid Arguments

Invalid Arguments

Valid argument With all premises true are sound

Valid argument With at least one false premises are unsound

All invalid arguments are unsound

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Categories of Unsound Arguments

There are three categories: Category 1 - it is valid but it has at least one false premise Category 2 - it is invalid, but all of its premises are true. Category 3 - it is invalid and it has at least one false premise An unsound argument is one that either is invalid or has at least one false premise.
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Conclusion
We want deductive arguments to be valid and have all true premises (sound argument). Arguments are neither true nor false only statements can be. Arguments can be valid, invalid, sound or unsound. Statements cannot be valid, invalid, sound or unsound. Premises and conclusion (statements) can either be true or false. Premises and conclusions (statements) cannot be valid, invalid, sound or unsound. Validity makes no reference necessarily to truth or falsehood. Rather, its focus is whether the conclusion is 18 linked to the premise.