MW Links Planning With Pathloss IV

Imran Siddiqui copy right reserved
1

Microwave Engineering with Pathloss IV

Imran Siddiqui

Email :m_imran_siddiqui@yahoo.com
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Microwave Communication
A communication system that utilizes the radio frequency band
spanning 2 to 60 GHz. As per IEEE, electromagnetic waves
between 30 and 300 GHz are called millimeter waves (MMW)
instead of microwaves as their wavelengths are about 1 to
10mm.
Small capacity systems generally employ the frequencies less
than 3 GHz while medium and large capacity systems utilize
frequencies ranging from 3 to 15 GHz. Frequencies > 15 GHz
are essentially used for short-haul transmission.
Microwave radio communication requires a clear line-of-sight
(LOS) condition.
Radio LOS takes into account the concept of Fresnel ellipsoids
and their clearance criteria.

3
Available RF Spectrum
Band

2-4 GHz

6-8 GHz

10 GHz

11 GHz

13-18 GHz

23-38 GHz

Advantage
Best propagation - no power fading (decoupling,
ducting).
Effective space diversity.

Lowest outage in non-ducting areas. Best high
capacity, long-haul performance
Very effective space diversity.
Good discrimination to interference and long-
delayed reflections.

Good longer path performance .
Effective space diversity.
Low rain outage in thunderstorm areas.

Wide spectrum (1000 MHz) available
Many high capacity channels available

Narrow and wideband channels available
Uncrowded bands (2000 MHz @ 18 GHz).

Few bandwidth constrictions .Uncrowded bands
(e.g. 2400 MHz wide band at 23 GHz)
Disadvantage
Wideband links are vulnerable to dispersive fading.
Reduced fade margins due to lower antenna gains.
Higher interference levels. 2 GHz impacted by
UMTS, FWA. High clearance paths are vulnerable to
reflections. 4 GHz shared with satellites.

Longer paths are vulnerable to power fades due to
ducting and decoupling in an adverse climate,
requiring higher path clearances in some areas.
Bands are crowded in some areas.

Limited bandwidth (4-16 T1/E1) RF channels.

Rain outage is a major factor in some areas. Shared
with satellite services 10.9-12.75 GHz.

Outages are dominated by rain in thunderstorm
areas, so path lengths are limited.

Very rain sensitive - e.g. needs 12-16 dB more fade
margin (or 50% shorter paths) at 23 GHz than 18
GHz for equal outage in rain areas.
4
TDM and PCM
The Bi-Polar PCM
Digital Signal
(50% duty cycle)
11111111 127
10100000 32
10010000 16
10001000 8
10000010 2
10000001 1
00000000 0
00000001 -1
00000010 -2
00001000 -8
00010000 -16
00100000 -32
01000000 -64
01111111 -127
10011000* (Amplitude = 24)
Ch. 2 Analog Signal (VF)
-law (DS1)
1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1* 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0* 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1*
8-bit code of
DS0 Ch. 1
8-bit code of
DS0 Ch. 2
8-bit code
of DS0 Ch. 3
DS1 Frame =24 x 8-bit Bytes +1 Framing Pulse =193 bits
193 bits x 8000 samples/sec =1.544 Mbit/s
*DS0 VF Supervisory Signals
on the
Least Significant Bit (LSB)
0 772 1544 3000 kHz
Note the negligible energy
below 10 kHz and above 1.544 MHz
E
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A
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P
C
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Q
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C
o
d
e

*Bi-Polar Violation (Alarm)
*
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Microwave Link Design Methodology
Microwave Link Design is a methodical, systematic and
sometimes lengthy process that includes :

Loss/attenuation calculations.
Fading and fade margins calculations.
Frequency planning and interference calculations.
Quality and availability calculations.

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Micrwave Link Design
Microwave Link Design Process
The whole process is iterative and may go through many redesign
phases before the required quality and availability are achieved.
Frequency
Planning
Link Budget
Quality
and
Availability
Calculations
Fading
Predictions
Interference
analysis
Propagation losses
Branching
losses
Other Losses
Rain
attenuation
Diffraction-
refraction
losses
Multipath
propagation
7
Radio Path Link Budget

Transmitter 1
Receiver 1
Splitter
Splitter
Transmitter 2
Receiver 2
Output
Power (Tx)
Branching
Losses
waveguide
P
r
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p
a
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L
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A
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G
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A
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G
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Branching
Losses
Received
Power (Rx)
Receiver threshold Value
Fade Margin
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Hierarchy in Multiple Access Networks
Analog FDM Hierarchy:
FDM Subgroup: 3 Channels, 4-16 kHz, 4 kHz per channel
Basic FDM Multiplex Group: 12 Channels, 12-60/60-108 kHz (2x48 kHz)
2-nd order Multiplex Group: 60 Channels, 2x240 kHz
3-rd order Multiplex Group: 300 Channels, 2x1.2 MHz
4-th order Multiplex Group: 960 Channels, 2x4 MHz
Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy:
Europe-ETSI: E1 (2048 kb/s, 30-31 channels 64 kb/s each),
E2 (8448 kb/s, 4E1s, 120-124 channels)
E3 (34.368 Mb/s, 16E1s, 480-496 channels
E4 (139.264 Mb/s, 64E1s, 1920-1984 channels)
USA-FCC: DS1 (1544 kb/s, 24 channels),
DS2 (6312 kb/s, 4DS1, 96 channels)
DS3 (44.736 Mb/s, 28DS1, 672 channels)
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy:
STM-1 (155.520 Mb/s, 63 E1s or 1 E4)
STM-4 (622.08 Mb/s, 252 E1s)
STM-16 (2488.32 Mb/s, 1088 E1s)
STM-64 (9953.28 Mb/s, 4032 E1s)
9
SDH Capacities
Line Rate
(Mbit/s)
SDH Signal PDH Signal
# E1 (2048 kbit/s)
Channel Transport
2.048 VC - 12 1 30
34.368 VC - 3 16 480
51.84
Sub-STM-1*
21 630
139.264 VC - 4 64 1,920
155.52 STM - 1 63 1,890
622.08 STM - 4 252 7,560
2488.32 STM - 16 1,008 30,240
9953.28 STM - 64 4,032 120,960
Reference: ITU-R Rec. F.750-3 (1997)
Radio
or Fiber

Fiber
1:N Radio
or Fiber
10
SDH Frame Structure
Frame Length: 125
RSOH : Regenerator Section Overhead
MSOH: Multiplexer Section Overhead
Bit rate: 155.520 Mbps
sec
11
SDH Frame Overhead
XBytesreservedfor
national usage

MBytesreservedfor
media specific usage

(empty)Bytesreserved
for future standardization
12
Typical Service Requirements
Bandwidth requirements for the applications listed are considered sufficient to provide adequate user
experience on a single workstation.
13
Transmission Media
Copper or Fiberoptics Cable - Leased Services
Monthly feeoperator never owns the network
Often long repair times ... customers are out of service
Limited availability...e.g. ~99.8% (~17 hr/yr traffic loss)
Fiberoptics Cable - Purchase
High installing cost ($30k-300k per km) favors very high capacity (2.5-10 Gb/s, per
colour with WDM) data transport
Vulnerable to route damage with long service interruptions
Wireless Optical (Infrared, Laser, etc.) - Purchase
Very short range - affected by optical visibility (300 m 3 km)
Low to high capacity, now to ~10 Gbit/s (OC-192/STM-64)
Microwave Radio - Purchase
Low life cycle cost
Rapid deployment, responsive service implementation, and under full user control (sites
and routes are secure)
14
Terrestrial Radio-relay links
Terminal A
Radio
Multiplex
Tx
Rx
Radio
Multiplex
Tx
Rx
Terminal B
Antenna
Path
Feeder
Interference
Data
Data
Antenna
Feeder
Radio meets superior reliability, higher security, and more demanding performance and
quality standards.
Radio user has total control over site access and restore time.
Radio grows with the network: Easily expandable and accommodates future relocation.
Radio has an operational life long after the leased-line payback has passed (~2 yrs).
Radio provides clear channel and protection capabilities.
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Advantages of MW wireless
solution
Disadvantages of MW wireless
solution
Low fixed costs
Fast implementation (days)
Focus deployment on best
opportunities
Winning cost profile in urban
and rural markets
Speed allows entry into new
markets
Unregulated at local levels
80% of cost is electronics
(not labor and structures)
Line of sight (LOS) propagation
Weather affects availability
Aesthetics problems of customer
antenna, community base stations
and towers
MMW technology is relatively new
to commercial applications (55 GHz)
Advantages and Disadvantages
16
Radio Wave Propagation
GEO, MEO,
and LEO
Satellites
Sky Wave
(HF only)
REFRACTED WAVE
NON-REFRACTED (k=1) WAVE Transmitting
Antenna
Receiving
Antenna
Troposphere
Ionosphere
Ground Wave
(LF/MF only)
True Earths Curvature
MULTIPATH RAYS
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MW versus Optic Fibre
Favors
Microwave
Microwave or fiber
Favors
Fiber
Required Transport Capacity
Favors: Radio Fiber

m Availability/security \ \
m Payload (transport) \\
m Cost effectiveness \
m Implementation time \
m Terrain considerations \
Transport Choices
Short
T
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n
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U
p

T
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e

Graph shows typical installation and
commissioning time vs. transmission capacity.

Microwave is favored for short installation times
and low-to-medium transport capacities.

Lightwave is obviously favored for its high to
very high transport capacities.

Radio generally has a lower fixed cost/unit
capacity and thus is less expensive for medium
capacities.
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MW Radio in Cellular Networks
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2.5G GSM Network
Intranet
MSC
Server
Route
r
Intranet
Serving GPRS
Support Node
(SGSN)
BSC
BTS
Um
Gateway GPRS
Support Node
(GGSN)
Server
Router
PSTN
Network
GPRS
backbone
network

Internet
LAN
Frame Relay
Network (New)
Options: IP over FR: IP over ATM over SDH : IP over DWDM: IP over FWA
Leased lines
Fibre, Microwave
20
MW radio-relay point-to-point wireless transmission is applicable to all
communication networks.
MW applied for Mobile, Broadcast and Backhauling
2G
3G
WiMAX
3G LTE
WiFi
xDSL
FTTN
FTTU
GPON
WiMAX
BTS
Microwave for
metro
Microwave for
backbone BSC
Regional TV Studio
Microwave
Microwave
WiMAX
Microwave
WAC
Mobile 2G and 3G
TV Broadcasting
Microwaves
Backhauling
Microwaves
Backbone
OMSN
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Broadband Services in TDM Transmission Solution
The Broadband effect:
Traffic
Revenues
Data Era
Voice Era
Cost
TDM Backhaul Model
TDM solution loose its effectiveness as data traffic becomes predominant,
since it is bursty in nature,
Improved versions of TDM platforms are available to mitigate this effect in its
early phase (Nodal Solutions; Higher spectral efficiency using SW configured
modulation schemes 16- QAM, 64-QAM, 128-QAM, 256-QAM; Super-PDH
platforms).
22
Exercise
Task: Convert to logarithmic dB units:
Power
Amplification:
Twice
20 times
400 times
500 000 times

Power
Attenuation:
One half
1/20
1/400
1/500 000

Use calculator and round the values to integer number of deci-bells.
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Logarithmic Units
1pW = -90 dBm
1nW = -60 dBm
1 W = -30 dBm
1mW = 0 dBm
1W = 1000 mW = 30 dBm
2W = 2000 mW = 33 dBm
4W = 4000 mW = 36 dBm
10W = 40 dBm
40W = 46 dBm
|
.
|
\
|
=
mW
P
dBm P
1
log 10 ] [
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
V
U
V dB U
1
log 20 ] [
Power expressed in dBm: Voltage expressed in dBuV:
24
Synchronization
Slip Rate: Af x frames/s x 86400 s/day
Type of Service Effect
Voice Clicks
Video Frozen frames or
missing lines
Modem Outage
Encryption Slow throughput
Fax Missing lines
25
Antenna Center-line Determination
The antenna height should be chosen in such a way that
obstruction losses during adverse propagation conditions are
acceptable.
Also, designer must consider the increased risk for ground
reflections if too large a clearance is used.
Antenna heights for a path can be obtained:

Graphically from path profiles
By using mathematical formulae
Using Link planning software tools (e.g. Pathloss v.4.0,
Enterprise Connect, TEMS Link Planner, Ellipse, Harris
Magic)
26
Path Calculations
270
330
390
440
500
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,

m

A
M
S
L

300
360
410
470
270
330
390
440
500
300
360
410
470
k = 4/3
F = 0.6
Site: Yates Center
Lat.: 37-51-02.N
Long.: 095-43-53. W
Marmaton
37-49-40. N
095-09-44. W
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0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Distance, km
k=4/3
0.6F1
1.9 GHz
k=4/3
27
Frequency Spectrum Allocation
Radio signals have to be frequency-separated if neither antenna discrimination
nor topographical shielding provides the necessary suppression of interfering
signals.
Distinct segments of MW frequency spectrum exhibits different propagation
characteristics (mutli-path effects, rain attenuation, absorption).
Particular frequency bands differ by their spectral width hence can support
different link capacities (channel separations range between 1.75 to 56 MHz).
All frequencies used in a radio-relay network should normally be selected from an
established frequency plan, generated either by international or national
organization.
28
Receiver Sensitivity
Receiver sensitivity of a digital radio, is a minimum signal level on the
receiversinputterminals,thatsecuresspecifiedmaximumallowableBER
behind receivers detector (typically 10
-3
or 10
-6
), including FEC.

Receiver sensitivity is affected by:

Type of modulation method employed
Type of carrier and clock recovery
circuits
Noise figure of the receiver path
Phase noise level of the local oscillator
Type of FEC and soft-detection
employed
29
Receiver Sensitivity and C/N
Sensitivity (minimum required Rx power) can be also expressed in
terms of minimum required Carrier-to-Noise Ratio (C/N).
N C N P
Th
/
min
+ =

[dBm; dBm, dB]
Where thermal noise:
dB Th
NF kTB N + + = 30 ) log( 10
k Boltzmans constant = 1.38 x 10
-23
J/K
T Absolute temperature of the receiver in K (0
o
C = 273.15 K)
B Noise bandwidth in Hz
NF Noise Figure of the receiver in dB
E.g. for BPSK minimum required C/N= 6 dB, for QPSK minimum
Required C/N=10 dB, for 16-QAM minimum required C/N= 17 dB@10
-3
[dBm; dBW, dB]
30
Receiver Thresholds
The 10
-6
BER (or other BER<10
-6
) Static Threshold is for factory and in-
service field verification of receiver noise and interference levels, measured
manually with attenuators
The 10
-3
BER Dynamic Threshold is for outage calculationsandhands-off
field measurements in a normal fading environment with BER network
management, following ITU-T G.821 performance definitions.
The BER-SES Dynamic Threshold is the same as the above dynamic
threshold, but is used for outage calculations following ITU-T G. 826
performance definitions. Usual range of BER-SES is 10
-3
10
-4
.
Three Digital Radio Thresholds: One for factory and field in-
service testing, and two for outage calculations, performance
measurements, etc.
31
Comparison of Modulation Methods
Receiver sensitivities for BER = 10
-6
(3.5, 10.5 GHz)

For the same input data rate, more crowded M-QAM constellations
use channel frequency band more effectively, but require higher C/I
Higher level M-QAM are susceptible to selective fading and other
types of linear distortion.
M-QAM schemes require linear RF power amplification.
Spectrum is expensive => Spectrum efficiency wins the battle
32
Free Space Loss and Absorption
2
4
|
.
|
\
|
=
D
A
FS
t
|
.
|
\
|
=
D
A
FSdB
t
4
log 20
A free space equation simply assumes that radio waves are transmitted
equally in all directions. Hence the power density is equal in every point of a
sphere having transmitter in its center. Receiver captures only small part of
the power, which is proportional to the effective area of receiving antenna
isotropic radiator.
In decibels:
WhereDdistancebetweentransmitterandreceiver
wavelength

33
Atmospheric Absorption Curves
Significant for frequency bands
above 15 GHz.
Absorption on water vapor H
2
O
Absorption on oxygen molecules O
2
Absorption on other gasses:
smog, exhaustions, etc.
34
Terrain Related Effects
Specular Reflection: For MW hops routed across large or medium sized bodies
of water (see, lakes, rivers), part of the energy radiated by the transmitter can be
almost totally reflected from the water level, then reach the receiver and add
destructively with a direct signal. This causes a power fade, the depth of which
changes nocturnally (K-variation).
Diffraction effects: MW energy reaching an obstacle, the longitudinal dimension
of which is comparable to the wavelength, is bent behind the obstacle. This
bending is called diffraction. The rays behind the obstacle, that are bent under
different angles, add up in a complex manner and cause cross-sectional variation
in power density. Common manifestation of such varying power density is an
attenuation on the direct path between Tx and Rx. This attenuation is subjected to
K-variation and is closely coupled to Fresnel zones clearance.
35
Long High Hop
K = 4/3
0.25

Discrimination
to the Reflection
1500
500
0
1000
0 20 40 60 80
100
(161 km)
0.249
Grazing Angle
K =
0.543

Decoupling
Angle
Distance,Mi
2000
2400
(731m)
1150 ft
(350 m)
E
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
n

A
M
S
L
,

F
t

Short delays (up to 5 nsec) must be tolerable if radio DFM is high
enough (>50dB), since there is very little antenna discrimination
on long paths. Coupling of the reflected ray can be sometimes
controlled by up-tilting the antennae (0-0.5 deg.)
36
Short High Hop
1150 ft (351m)
K = 4/3
1.25
O
Discrimination
to the Reflection
1200
(365m)
750
500
250
0
1000
0 4 8 12 16
20
(32 km)
1.248
O
Grazing Angle
K =
0.109
O
Decoupling
Angle
Distance,Mi
E
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
n

A
M
S
L
,

F
t

For high grazing angles (1-5 deg.), vertical polarization
shall be preferred. Decoupling of the reflected ray is
difficult to control and delays can be high (up to 25 ns).
37
Basic of Fresnel Zone
Fresnel Zone - Areas of constructive and destructive interference created
when electromagnetic wave propagation in free space is reflected (multipath)
or diffracted as the wave intersects obstacles. Fresnel zones are specified
employing ordinal numbers that correspond to the number of half wavelength
multiples that represent the difference in radio wave propagation path from
the direct path.
The Fresnel Zone must be clear of all obstructions.
Typically the first Fresnel zone (N=1) is used to determine obstruction loss.
The direct path between the transmitter and the receiver needs a clearance
above ground of at least 60% of the radius of the first Fresnel zone to achieve
free space propagation conditions.
Earth-radius factor k compensates the refraction in the atmosphere.
Clearance is described as any criterion to ensure sufficient antenna heights
so that, in the worst case of refraction the receiver antenna is not placed in
the diffraction region.
38
Fresnel Zones Concept
Radius of the n-th Fresnel zone:
2 1
2 1
d d
d d
n r
+
=
Where wavelength
Electromagnetic energy directed by the transmitting antenna

needs 3D unobstructed space to travel to the particular receiver.
More then 90% of the energy radiated in particular direction is
concentrated in so called 1-st Fresnel zone. 1-st Fresnel zone
must remain unobstructed to avoid diffraction losses. Even
Fresnel zone are important to judge upon reflection points.
39
Fade Margin
10
-2

-
-
-
-
10
-3

-
-
-
-
10
-4

-
-
-
-
10
-5

-
-
-
-
10
-6

-
-
-
-
10
-7

-
-
-
-
10
-8

-
-
-
-
10
-9

-
-
-
-
10
-10

-
-
-
-
10
-11

-
-
-
-
10
-12

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
C/N or C/I Ratio, dB

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

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-

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-

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B
E
R

-

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-

-

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-

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-

-

(OUTAGE)
BPSK
4PSK
4QAM
QPSK
9QPR
8PSK
16QAM
32QAM
49QPR 64QAM
225QPR
128QAM
32PSK
256QAM
Excludes
FEC Coding
Gains
(STATIC)
512QAM 25QPR
Fade Margin is a difference between
median received signal level, calculated
from Power Budget equation, and
BER=10
-3
threshold of the receiver system.
This difference has to account for
stochastic propagation phenomena, that
can compromise system reliability.

These phenomena are:
Attenuation due to rain.
Intersystem interference.
Multipath fading.
K-factor variation.
Ducting.
40
Table of Contents Pathloss v.4.0
Introduction to Pathloss v.4.0
Hop Definition
Terrain Profiling & Clearance Criteria
Microwave Worksheet
Applying Diversity and Protection
Diffraction Module Overview
Reflection Analysis
Multipath Operation
Network Description
Intra-system Interference
Design with Passive Repeater
Map Grid Module
Radio and Antenna Data Files
Case Studies
41
Pathloss v.4.0 is Developed by
42
Pathloss Web Sites
Pathloss Forum (Questions and Answers about the planning
with Pathloss v.4.0)
Regular Maintenance Updates
Radio and Antenna Description files for new products on the
market
Documentation on new Pathloss v.4.0 features (e.g. on GIS
formats) and appendix to the User Manual
Ordering Information and Part Number List
43
Introduction of Pathloss
The Pathloss program is a comprehensive path design tool for
radio links operating in the frequency range from 30 MHz to 100
GHz.
The program is organized into eight path design modules, an
area signal coverage module and a network module which
integrates the radio paths.
Coverage module and a network module which integrates the
radio paths and area coverage analysis. Switching between
modules is accomplished by selecting the module from the menu
bar.
44
Cont Introduction of Pathloss
Pathloss 4.0 (PL4B)
Basic Pathloss program. Contains all of the necessary tools to
carry out point to point radio system design.

Pathloss 4.0 (PL4C)
As above, but with the additional power of a full featured radio
coverage prediction module.

Pathloss 4.0 (PL4I)
Basic Pathloss program with complete Microwave network
interference capabilities.

Pathloss 4.0 (PL4CI)
Basic Pathloss program with both the coverage prediction and
the Microwave interference modules.

45
Prerequisites
Following prerequisites imply successful participation in the
Pathloss course:

Knowledge of basic principles of MW Transmission
Engineering and Link planning
Laptop/desktop computer with installation of Pathloss v.4.0
planning software :
For your country or region of interest:
NED (SRTM 3) Data http://srtm.usgs.gov/geodata/
Void Killer SW allows to correct raw STRM 3withGTOPO30
Or any other DTM compatible with Pathloss v.4.0.
46
ContIntroduction of Pathloss
47
Planning Concept
Planning modules contained in Pathloss:

Summary Module
Terrain Data Generation
Antenna Height Calculation
Worksheet Module (Reliability Calculation)
Diffraction Module
Reflection Module
Multipath Module
Network Module (Frequency Planning)
Map Grid
Coverage Module (only for PtMP systems)
Pathloss v.4.0 is an advanced planning software for design of microwave radio-relay
links and networks. It allows a qualified user to perform step by step analysis of all
important propagation related phenomena, needed to generate a planning report
containing all the data necessary for correct and reliable implementation of MW radio-
relay hop.
48
Pathloss Basic Parameters
Adjusting the display options available
In Configure Selection:
Antenna Configuration:

1. TR-Transmit/Receive Antenna
2. Tx-Transmitting Antenna
3. Rx-Receiving Antenna
4. DR-Diversity Receiving Antenna
5. TH- Transmitting/Hybrid Diversity
49
Coordinate Systems
The user can choose most suitable local
geodetic datum (e.g. in Nigeria it is Minna
Nigeria), Singapore use South Asia datum
and Ellipsoid is Modified Fischer 1960.For
East Malaysia use Timbalai 1948 datum and
Everest (Sabah Sarawak) Ellipsoid and
Pakistan use WGS84 datum and WGS84
Ellipsoid.
Typical choice for world-wide datum is WGS
84 (World Geographic System 1984)
If special maps have to be handled,
ellipsoid can be defined independently
from datum (e.g. GRS80)
Note: WGS 84datum uses WGS84 ellipsoid.
Grid coordinate system can be chosen to
define planar projection from geodetic
systems defined on ellipsoid
Most common: UTM-Universal Transverse
Mercator.
50
Summary Module
Data entered into Summary Module, Option in Module-Summary
51
Radio Lookup Tables
Defining look-up table from Equipment option with Radio Code Index table and
Module-Worksheet-Double click on Antenna-Lookup.
52
Radio Specifications
Radio parameters:
This table is not editable
Radio specification has
defined via converting a
radio data file.
only few of the entries in
the table are mandatory.
Pathloss can use rough
calculation of certain
missing parameters like
Rx-selectivity curve or T/I
curves.
There are minimum 5
parameters to define a
radio .
Option is on Module-
Summary-Double click on
Code-View.
53
Antenna Lookup Tables
Defining look-up table from Antenna Code Index table
54
Antenna Radiation Pattern
Co-polar and Cross-polar patterns
55
Active & Passive Antenna

Antenna types
Pasive Active
56
Polarization
Polarization
The electric and magnetic fields of electromagnetic wave are
perpendicular to each other. Their intensities rise and fall
together, reaching their maximums 90 degrees apart (Fig. 5-1).
Thedirectionofwavespolarizationisdeterminedbyelectric
field i.e. in a vertically polarized wave, the electric lines of force
lie in a vertical direction and in a horizontally polarized wave, the
electric lines of force lie in a horizontal direction. When a single-
wire antenna is used to extract energy from a passing radio
wave, maximum pickup will result when the antenna is oriented
in the same direction as the electric field. Hence, a vertical
antenna is used for the efficient reception of vertically polarized
waves, and a horizontal antenna is used for the reception of
horizontally polarized waves.
57
Antenna Beamwidth
Antenna beam width
In a radiation patter due to antenna directivity the points, in
which power comparing to the maximum power is decreased by
3 dB may be noticed. The angle between these points is called
a beam width. In other words the beam width is an opening
angle between the points where the radiated power is 3 dB lower
than in the main direction

58
Graphical Representation of Antenna Beam width
Beam width definition
GSM Cell Planning Figure 5-2 Page X
Main direction
Beam wi dth
3 dB
Antenna lobe
59
Types of Antenna in MW
Antenna Gain
Side lobe levels and front-to-back ratio
Beam width
Voltage Standing-wave Ratio (VSWR)
Cross-polarization discrimination
Mechanical stability
The most common type of antenna used on MW links is a
parabolic dish. For higher frequency bands (15-38 GHz)
parabolic dish can be substituted by microstrip patch-array
antennae (flat antennae).
The antenna parameters are very important for the system
performance.
The most important antenna parameters from propagation
point of view are:
60
VSWR, Cross-polarization Discrimination

Voltage Standing-wave Ration (VSWR) is important
parameter for high Speed communication systems with
stringent linearity objectives. To avoid inter-modulation
distortion, VSWR should be minimized by proper antenna
selection and cable length adjustment. Standard antennae in
MW bands have VSWR within a range of 1.06 1.15 typically.
Another important parameter for MW frequency planning is a
discrimination between co-polar and cross-polar signal by
the antenna. A good cross-polarization discrimination enables
full utilization of the frequency band in both the vertical and
horizontal polarization planes. Typical values are within range of
2030 dB for standard antennae. Cross-polarization
discrimination reaches its largest value in direction of the main
lobe.

61
Beam-width & Radiation Pattern
o angle in horizontal or vertical plane
The half power beam width of antenna is
defines as the angular width of the main beam
at the 3 dB point, relative to the bore-sight.
For parabolic antennae:
D
dB

o 35
3
=
where D diameter of antenna [m]
[degrees]
Side and back-lobe levels are important
parameters in frequency planning and
interference calculations. Low side lobes
allow for more efficient use of the fre-
quency spectrum. A front-to-back ratio
indicates the levels for angles within a
Range of 90-180 degrees.
62
Antenna Alignment
0dB
0 dB
A. Poor Alignment (One Antenna
Peaked on a Side Lobe)
-10 to -20dB
(First Side Lobe)
High
Antenna
-1dB
B. Optimum Antenna Alignment
(Best compromise between path
and propagation)
0dB
Desired Path
-10dB

Low
Antenna
Attain free-space or optimum Received Signal Levels
Discriminate against ground reflections which cause fading
and may reduce link Dispersive Fade Margins,
Accommodate, by size and/or up-tilt, K-factor angle-of-arrival
variations which may cause antenna decoupling and severe
fading.

63
Antenna Gain
Antennagainevaluatesantennascapabilitytofocuselectromagneticenergy
to preferred direction (bore-sight). For parabolic antennae used on MW bands,
gain can be expressed as :
2
4
t
qS A=
[dBi]
Where S aperture area
wavelength
aperture efficiency
(0.55-0.70)
f
c
=
c = 3x10
8
q

64
Exercise
Task: Calculate the theoretical gain and beam-width for the following types of
parabolic antenna:

1. Antenna 1.2 m in diameter (0.75) for 15 GHz band

Hint: Figures in parenthesis indicate the aperture efficiency.
65
Typical antenna characteristics (standard, X-polar)
66
Antenna Mounting Full Indoor & Split Systems
Split System Full Indoor System
67
Frequency Planning Rules
Radio signals have to be frequency-separated if neither antenna discrimination nor
topographical shielding provides the necessary suppression of interfering signals.
The degree of separation depends on the transmitted bandwidth - the spectrum
bandwidth in MHz. Raster: 1.75;3.5;7;14;28;56 MHz.
This separation called adjacent-channel separation - should be as small as
possible to give a frequency economic solution. This requires some kind of
standardization, a frequency plan.
Certain basic rules should be followed setting up the frequency plan. All
frequencies used in a radio-relay network should normally be selected from an
established frequency plan, approved either by an international or national
standardization body.
68
Frequency Planning
The objective of frequency planning is to assign frequencies to a
network using as few frequencies as possible and in a manner such that
the quality and availability of the radio link path is minimally affected by
interference. The following aspects are the basic considerations involved
in the assignment of radio frequencies.
Determining a frequency band that is suitable for the specific link
(path length, site location, terrain topography and atmospheric effects)
Prevention of mutual interference such as interference among radio
frequency channels in the actual path, interference to and from other
radio paths, interference to and from satellite communication systems
Correct selection of a frequency band allows the required transmission
capacity while efficiently utilizing the available radio frequency spectrum

69
Frequency Planning
Assignment of a radio frequency or radio frequency channel
is the authorization given by an administration for a radio
station to use a radio frequency or radio frequency channel
under specified conditions. It is created in accordance with
the Series-F recommendations given by the ITU-R.
Frequency Channel Arrangements
The available frequency band is subdivided into two halves,
a lower (go) and an upper (return) duplex half. The duplex
spacing is always sufficiently large so that the radio
equipment can operate interference free under duplex
operation. The width of each channel depends on the
capacity of the radio link and the type of modulation used

70
Frequency Planning
The most important goal of frequency planning is to allocate
available channels to the different links in the network without
exceeding the quality and availability objectives of the
individual links because of radio interference.
Frequency planning of a few paths can be carried out
manually but, for larger networks, it is highly recommended to
employ a software transmission design tool. One such vendor
independent tool is Pathloss 4.0. This tool is probably one of
the best tools for complex microwave design. It includes North
American and ITU standards, different diversity schemes,
diffraction and reflection (multipath) analysis, rain effects,
interference analysis etc.

71
Frequency Planning for Different Network Topologies

Chain/cascade configuration is used for horizontal and vertical
Polarization
L U U
f1 HP f1 VP f1 HP
72
Ring Configuration

If the ring consisted of an odd number of sites there
would be a conflict of duplex halves and changing the
frequency band would be a reliable alternative.
U
L
U
L
L
U
f1 HP
f1 VP
f1 VP
f1 VP
f1 HP
f1 VP
73
Star Configuration

The link carrying the traffic out of the hub should use a
frequency band other than the one employed inside the
cluster.
L
U U
U
U
U
f1 HP
f2 VP
f1 HP
f1 HP
f2 VP
74
Frequency Channel Tables
Frequency channels are chosen from
predefined raster which follows ITU-R
Recs. or local regulations,
Polarization is defined independently.
Option available in Summary-
Equipment-TX - Channel-Lookup.
75
Map Study and Path Profile Preparation
Preliminary map studies help in determining the actual
topography of the terrain, the height, and obstacles along
the desired path.
Soon after, tentative antenna sites have been selected, and
the relative elevations of the terrain between these sites has
been determined, preparation of path profiles can begin.
76
Field Survey and Site Determination
Confirmation of LOS
Check-up of suspected reflection points, vegetation, water, buildings and
other man-made obstacles
Determination of height of, and distance to critical obstacles
Determination and confirmation of the path profile
Determination of site co-ordinates and altitudes
Site survey
77
Purpose of Terrain Profiling
Location of the reflection zone (dish heights).
Calculating dish discriminations to the reflection (dish sizes)
Determining Fresnel clearance at the reflection (diversity,
spacing).
Calculating Path inclination angle.
Calculating Reflection grazing angle (V- or H-pol assignment)
Finding Ray height at the reflection or obstruction area
Calculating Reflected ray time delay (nsec).
Choosing Optimum diversity dish separations to specular
reflections.
Calculating Arrival angle with K-factor variations.
Calculating diffraction Obstruction loss vs. terrain type.
78
Generated Profile in Terrain Data Module
Representation of Terrain Data
79
Types of Digital Terrain Models (DTM)
Window for choosing source
directory with GTOPO 30 DTM data
Window for choosing type of DTM
(Digital Terrain Model) to be used for
planning and LOS analysis.
Option is in Configure-Terrain
Database.
Window with adjustable parameters
for UTM DTM data.
UTM zone used by the data file
Index file describing the UTM data
80
UTM Database
Index File for UTM Data
81
SRTM Database
Importing BIL, HDR, BLW files from USGS DVD
82
Clutter Insertion
Clutter inserted in Terrain Data module, Double click on Structure option.
83
Propagation Losses
Obstacle Loss also called Diffraction Loss or Diffraction
Attenuation. One method of calculation is based on Knife edge
approximation.
Having an obstacle free 60% of the Fresnel zone gives 0 dB loss.

0 dB
20dB
16dB
6dB
0 dB
First Fresnel Zone
84
Earth Radius Factor K - Values Variations
85
Radio Refractivity
K = Effective Earths Radius
6378 km
Ray day-to-night
arrival angle
change could
approach 1
o
on
long paths
traversing humid
areas
Sea Level
True Earth
Radius (6378 km)
k = 0.33
k = 0.5
k = 1 (Dry, Elevated)
k = (follows Earths curvature)
k = -1
Subrefractive - Earth Bulge
Superrefractive - Ducting
Earths Bulge
Obstruction
Duct Entrapment
8

Obstruction
k = 4/3rds Average Refractivity
in Temperate Areas
86
Earth Curvature
h =
2x6.378 K
d
1
d
2
The K factor in the above equation is a constant whose value depends upon the
actual propagation conditions of the microwave energy along the path (gradient of
refractive index).
Various values of the K are used to describe radio ray trajectories that differ from a
straight line.
Where:
h represents Earth bulge height relative to he terminal stations [m]
d
1
and d
2
are distances from terminal stations [km]
Parabolic transformation of Earths bulge:
87
Bending in the Atmosphere
Snell's law indicates that the rays bend towards the denser of the two media. In the atmosphere
the index of refraction is varying continuously with gradient of dN/dh= 40 ppm/km. Normal
n=1.000320 Consequently no distinctive boundary will be found as in figure below.
Ray bending in the atmosphere may be considered as a large number of boundaries with a small
variation n.
88
Bending cont.
During normal conditions, temperature, humidity and pressure in the lower
atmosphere decrease almost linearly with increased altitude.
The above corresponds to a linear decrease in the refractive index of the
atmosphere and the velocity of microwaves traveling through the
atmosphere increases as the refractive index decreases
As the wave front passes through a normal atmosphere, the increased
phase velocities at the top of the wave front cause microwave to bend
slightly downward in relatively uniform curve.
89
Gradient of Refraction
1
157
1
(
(
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
A
A
+ =
h
N
K
i
i
n
c
v =
2
5
10 73 . 3 6 . 77
T
eH
T
p
N + =
6
10 ). 1 ( =
i
n N
h
N
A
A is gradient of refractive index n
i
expressed in N units (std. 40 N/km)
n
i
is atmospheric refractive index
(standard value 1.000320 near sea level)

p is atmospheric pressure (std. value 1013 hPa)

T is atmospheric temperature (std. value 288 K)

e is saturation pressure due to the water vapor
(10 hPa)

H is relative atmospheric humidity (std. value 50%)

c is velocity of light (299 798 km/s)

h represents height in kilometers
90
Refractive Ray Bending
G = 0, K = 1 (No refraction)
G = > 0, K = 2/3
G = - 157 K approaches infinity
Moderate Negative Gradient: Flat
Earth
G < - 157, K < 0
DUCTING
G = - 79 , K =2
G = - 40 , K =4/3 ( Mean)
STANDARD
EARTH
SUPERREFRACTIVE
SUBREFRACTIVE
G = - 314 K = -1
Steep Gradient: Possible Blackout
G = - 470 K = -0.5
Extreme Gradient: Blackout
G = 80 K = 2/3 Slightly Sub refractive
G = 157 K = Moderately Sub refractive
G = 220 K = 5/12
Humidity Inversion: Extreme Earths
Bulge: Diffraction Fade
91
Gradient of Refractive Index
Also the negative values are more extreme than the positive values,
NOTE: Positive gradient cause diffraction loss (substandard bending) or sub-
refraction,
NOTE: When the gradient becomes more negative than dN/dh = -100 N Units/km
(super-refractive) and leads to multipath fading,
When the gradient becomes more negative than dN/dh = - 157, ducting
conditions occur resulting in severe mutipath fading, beam spreading and even
blackout conditions,
ITU in recommendation P.453 provides a series of curves that give the
percentage of time, dN/dh is less than 100 N-unit/km. This gives the probability
of multipath being a problem. It is the P
L
chart.
92
K-factor Fading
Density profiles in Subrefractive, Standard, and Superrefractive Atmospheric Boundary Layers (ABL)
Refractivity Terms
S
Top of Layer
Denver: N
S
= 301 - (1.6km x 40 ppm/km) = 239
h, km
0

(
k

=
1
)

N
S
= 239
N
0
=

301 370 469 548
Inland Coastal
Median
N = Atmospheric density (refractive index)
N
0
= N at sea level
N
s
= N at ground surface level
Normal Propagation
90-95%
(Wave refracted
downwards)
N-units
(Radio Refractive Index
at Sea Level)
Subrefractive
1-5% of the time
(Wave refracted
upwards)
Super
Refractive
Trapping
0-1%
(severe
ducting or
blackout)
Super
Refractive
1-5 %
Ducting
(Horizon
extended)
93
Ducting and Blackout Fade
Ducting: The atmosphere has a very dense layer at the
ground (or at certain height above) with a thin layer on the
top of it. For such layer configuration, there will be almost
total reflection present on this layer boundary.

Effect of ducting results in considerable higher signal levels
then those calculated from standard propagation models.

Danger: Interference from remote sources!
Difficult to predict quantitatively.
94
Super-refraction (black out)
Anomalous propagation occurs outside the normal range of K from 1 to infinity.
This catastrophic phenomenon is known as Blackout fading.
K becomes negative
K = - 1/2
When an extreme drop in atmospheric density with height (a negative refractive index)
occurs, or when the gradient is positive, climatic conditions are conducive to anomalous
propagation.
95
Concept of Clearance
Fresnel Zone Boundaries
+10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40
A
A
OBSTRUCTION ZONE
(Obstructed path)
CLEARANCE OR
INTERFERENCE ZONE
(Reflective path)
GRAZING
0.6 1 2 3 4 5
Site A 64km path, k=1 (on true earths radius profile) Site B
FRESNEL ZONE NUMBERS RSL, dB FROM FREE SPACE
Ray F1 = 56m DIAMETER
GRAZING PATH
(6-20 dB LOSS)
0.6F1@k=1 PATH
Average
Terrain
0.6F1 PATH
CLEARANCE
= FREE SPACE
(NO LOSS)
CROSS-SECTION A-A

5
4
3
2

1
0.6
0
0.6
1
2
3
4
5
96
Choosing Clearance Criteria
Clearance criteria are chosen separately for Main and Diversity Antenna,
Two values of K-factor are involved (K for normal conditions [median value
K=4/3] and minimum K [0.60-0.80]),
Fixed provision for vegetation growth can be entered as well.
Option available in Configure - Antenna height - Operation Set
Clearance Criteria.
97
Typical antenna characteristics (standard, X-polar)
98
Towers and Masts
Poles for rooftop installations
Self-supported Lattice towers (20 150 m)
Tube towers (10 40 m)
Guyed Masts (10 100 m) up to 300 m for TV transmitters

Accessories: Leaders, Platforms, Mounting Brackets,
Obstruction Lights, Aircraft Warning Lights

Soil bearing shall be measured during comprehensive site survey and test
drilling shall be performed to determine optimum size of the tower base.
99
Microwave Installation Ground Based Tower
100
Microwave Installation Rooftop Structures
101
Shelters and Containers
Bricked technology houses expensive but provides most suitable environment for
technology
Shelters cost-effective, less esthetic, requires air-conditioning
Containers - for sites with limited technology requirements (e.g. remote BTS)
Chosen technology housing shall reflect the radio type, requirements for expansion
and power back-up times.
Accessories:
Heating and Air-conditioning
Cable trays and inlets
Burglary Alarm
Mains Power Board
Grounding system
102
Shelter for Full Indoor Equipment
Branching Connection
Pressure Windows
Waveguide Connector
Wall/Roof Feed-Thru or Plate/Boot
Grounding Kit
Dehydrator
Clamps
Waveguide
Cable / Waveguide Bridge
Grounding Bar
103
Outdoor Container for Split System
Standard Shelter BS Integration
104
Auxiliary Equipment
Dehydrator
105
Antenna Center-line Calculation
Option in Module Antenna Height
106
Path Calculations
270
330
390
440
500
E
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
n
,

m

A
M
S
L

300
360
410
470
270
330
390
440
500
300
360
410
470
k = 4/3
F = 0.6
Site: Yates Center
Lat.: 37-51-02.N
Long.: 095-43-53. W
Marmaton
37-49-40. N
095-09-44. W
_
_
_
_

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_

_
_

_
_

_
_

_
_
_
_

_
_

_
_

_
_

_
_

_
_
_
_

_
_

_
_

_
_

_
_

_
_
_
_

_
_

_
_

_
_

_
_

_
_
_
_

_
_

_
_

_
_

_
_

_
_
_
_

_
_

_
_

_
_

_
_

_
_
_
_

_
_

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Distance, km
k=4/3
0.6F1
1.9 GHz
k=4/3
107
Path Clearance Criteria
HEAVY ROUTE
About 6 GHz and above in
moderate to heavy fade areas
LIGHT ROUTE
About 2 GHz and below in all areas, and
all paths in good to average fade areas
0.6 F
1
@ K = 4/3
0.6 F
1
@ K = 2/3 (K
min
)
and
F
1
@ K = 4/3
MAIN PATH
(Top Dishes)
0.6 F
1
@ K = 4/3
+3m Close-In
For tree growth, etc.
typically 10-12m
below main dish
DIVERSITY PATH
(Top-To-Bottom Dishes)
No Special Allowance
Over a 50m
Surface Ducting Layer,
grazing @ K = 1/2
DUCTING
Main path clearance with
known surface duct
entrapment (paths 30
kilometers)
See the next page for minimum K (K
min
) concept.
0.3 F
1
@ K = 4/3
or grazing @ K = 4/3,
typically 10-20m
below main dish
108
Survey Equipment
The Survey Report contains
System Description
Site Description and Layout
Antenna and Tower Heights
Path Profile
Fresnel Zone Drawing and Diffraction
Calculation
Photographs of the site
Panorama photographs
List of Survey Equipment:
Maps in scale 1:50 000 or better
Digital camera
Binocular
Compass
Barometric altimeters (pair)
Signaling mirrors, He-filled balloon
Flash light
Tape measure
Hand-held radio or Cell phone
Hand-held GPS receiver
DGPS set (2 receivers)
Theodolite with tripod
Laptop with DTM and planning SW
Spectrum analyzer with accessories
Test antennae
Test transmitter
109
Site Selection Considerations
System Related:
Distance to the customer (BTS search ring)
LOS to the existing and possible future neighbors
Local climatic conditions
Vegetation, clutter (buildings, chimneys) in the vicinity
Currently installed technology in the vicinity

Construction Related:
Site accessibility (distance to the roads)
Available electric power source (PUC, Sunny Days)
Soil bearing
Underground water level

Other:
Type of land ownership
Security (guard needed)
Military area considerations
110
Map Study
The purpose of the preliminary map study is to familiarize with the overall
system layout and to assemble information including, but not limited to, the
best available topographic mapping for the area under consideration, site
addresses, site names or designations, site coordinates and elevations.
Establishing of site coordinates
Generation of Path profile
Identification of Reflective surfaces
Identification of Critical points
111
Digitized Maps
112
Generating Profile Report
Print Profile Report in Module option for LOS Verification
113
Microwave Worksheet
Net Pathloss Components
Free Space Loss and Absorption
Multipath Propagation Reliability Prediction Models
Vigants-Barnet Model
K.Q Factor
ITU-R P.530-6
ITU-R P.530-7
ITU-R P.530-9/10
Rain Attenuation Models
Crane Model
ITU-R P.530-7
Rain and Co-channel Operation
Section Performance Calculation
Loss / Attenuation Calculation.
114
Net Path Loss Components
Calculated net path loss components in Module option Microwave worksheet
115
Loss / Attenuation Calculations
The loss/attenuation calculations are composed of three main
contributions :

Propagation losses
(DuetoEarthsatmosphereandterrain).
Branching losses
(Comes from the hardware used to deliver the transmitter/receiver
output to/from the antenna).
Miscellaneous (other) losses
(unpredictable and sporadic in character like fog, moving objects
crossing the path, poor equipment installation and less than perfect
antenna alignment etc).
This contribution is not calculated but is considered in the planning
process as an additional loss.
116
Link Budget Calculation
Path-loss equation used for MW (3 - 38 GHz)
aD D f dB A + + + = log 20 log 20 45 . 92
Where f RFfrequencyinGHz
DPropagationdistanceinkm
a Attenuationduetotheairandwatervaporin
dB/km (Typically 0.1 0.4)

Misc Rx Tx TLTx TLRx Tot
A G G A A A A + + + =
Where ATLTransmissionlinelossesandbranchingcircuitlossesonRxandTxside
GAntennagainonRxandTxside
AMiscMiscellaneouslosses(e.g.antennamisalignment,Txpowervariations)
117
Fade Margin
10
-2

-
-
-
-
10
-3

-
-
-
-
10
-4

-
-
-
-
10
-5

-
-
-
-
10
-6

-
-
-
-
10
-7

-
-
-
-
10
-8

-
-
-
-
10
-9

-
-
-
-
10
-10

-
-
-
-
10
-11

-
-
-
-
10
-12

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
C/N or C/I Ratio, dB

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

B
E
R

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

(OUTAGE)
BPSK
4PSK
4QAM
QPSK
9QPR
8PSK
16QAM
32QAM
49QPR 64QAM
225QPR
128QAM
32PSK
256QAM
Excludes
FEC Coding
Gains
(STATIC)
512QAM 25QPR
Fade Margin is a difference between
median received signal level, calculated
from Power Budget equation, and
BER=10
-3
threshold of the receiver system.
This difference has to account for
stochastic propagation phenomena, that
can compromise system reliability.

These phenomena are:
Attenuation due to rain.
Intersystem interference.
Multipath fading.
K-factor variation.
Ducting.
118
Fading and Fade Margins
Rain Fading
Rain attenuates the signal caused by the scattering and
absorption of electromagnetic waves by rain drops.
It is significant for long paths (>10Km)
It starts increasing at about 10GHz and for frequencies
above 15 GHz, rain fading is the dominant fading
mechanism.
Rain outage increases dramatically with frequency and
then with path length.
The specific attenuation of rain is dependent on many
parameters such as the form and size of distribution of
the raindrops, polarization, rain intensity and frequency.

119
Recommendation for Rain Fading
Microwave path lengths must be reduced in areas where
rain outages are severe.
The available rainfall data is usually in the form of a
statistical description of the amount of rain that falls at a
given measurement point over a period of time. The total
annual rainfall in an area has little relation to the rain
attenuation for the area.
Hence a margin is included to compensate for the effects of
rain at a given level of availability. Increased fade margin
(margins as high as 45 to 60dB) is of some help in rainfall
attenuation fading.

120
How Reducing the Effects of Rain

Multipath fading is at its minimum during periods of heavy
rainfall with well aligned dishes, so entire path fade margin is
available to combat the rain attenuation (wet-radome loss
effects are minimum with shrouded antennas)
Route diversity with paths separated by more than about 8 Km
can be used successfully.
Radios with Automatic Transmitter Power Control have been
used in some highly vulnerable links.
Vertical polarization is far less susceptible to rainfall
attenuation (40 to 60%) than are horizontal polarization
frequencies.
121
Refraction Diffraction Fading
Also known as K-type fading
Forlowkvalues,theEarthssurfacebecomescurved
and terrain irregularities, man-made structures and other
objects may intercept the Fresnel Zone.
Forhighkvalues,theEarthssurfacegetsclosetoa
plane surface and better LOS (lower antenna height) is
obtained.
The probability of refraction-diffraction fading is therefore
indirectly connected to obstruction attenuation for a given
value of Earth radius factor.
Since the Earth-radius factor is not constant, the
probability of refraction-diffraction fading is calculated
based on cumulative distributions of the Earth-radius
factor.
122
Ground Reflection
ReflectionontheEarthssurfacemaygiverisetomultipath
propagation.
The direct ray at the receiver may interfered with by the
ground-reflected ray and the reflection loss can be significant.
Since the refraction properties of the atmosphere are
constantly changing the reflection loss varies.
The loss due to reflection on the ground is dependent on the
total reflection coefficient of the ground and the phase shift.
The highest value of signal strength is obtained for a phase
angle of 0o and the lowest value is for a phase angle of 180o.

123
Ground Reflection
The reflection coefficient is dependent on the frequency,
grazing angle (angle between the ray beam and the horizontal
plane), polarization and ground properties.
The grazing angle of radio-relay paths is very small usually
less than 1o
It is recommended to avoid ground reflection by shielding the
path against the indirect ray.
The contribution resulting from reflection loss is not
automatically included in the link budget. When reflection
cannot be avoided, the fade margin may be adjusted by
includingthiscontributionasadditionallossinthelink
budget.

124
Fade Margin vs Unavailability
125
Causes of Unavailability
Predictable rain outage in local-grade links above about 10-12 GHz,
especially in tropical equatorial areas and costal regions,
Dual equipment failure within the MTTR period,
Maintenance error or manual intervention (e.g. failure of a locked-on
module or path and error in switching the module),
Infrastructure failure (e.g. antenna, batteries),
Low fade margin in non-diversity links,
Power fade (long-term loss of fade margin) in lower clearance paths above
about 6 GHz in some difficult areas, or with antenna misalignment,
Ducting (subrefractive, superrefractive) and black-out fading.
126
Multipath Propagation Reliability Prediction Models
Multipath fading algorithm embedded in
Pathloss:
Vigants-Barnet
ITU-R P.530-6 Recs.
ITU-R P.530-7 Rec. (Normally used) .
ITU-R P.530-9 Recs.
K.Q Factor.
K.Q Factor with Terrain Roughness.

Results presentation:
Total annual time bellow level
SESR, Availability as per G.821 definition
(Bit Error Rate)
SESR, Availability as per G.826 definition
(Block Error Rate)
127
Multipath Fading Mechanism
Unfortunately, normal atmospheric conditions do not always prevail.
Irregularities in the atmosphere cause energy components of a microwave beam to be
reflected or refracted upwards or downwards instead of following normal slightly curved
path to the receiving antenna.
As a result, two or more separate wave components may travel to the receiver over
slightly different paths.
These components will be somewhat out of phase with each other because of the
difference in the length of path each has traveled.
Also at each point of reflection approximately 180 degree phase shift normally occurs.
If two signal components travel paths are different by a wavelength, one signal component
has been reflected, they will arrive 180 deg out of phase at the receiver and their vector
sum will be zero.
128
Vector Sums
Signal envelope variations:
Constructive sum:
Destructive sum:
129
Availability and Performance Recs
Performance Recommendations derived from ITU-T G.821:
ITU-R F. 594 (Parameters and definitions)
ITU-R F. 634 (Application to High Grade portion below PRI rate)
ITU-R F. 696 (Application to Medium Grade portion below PRI rate)
ITU-R F. 697 (Application to Local Grade portion below PRI rate)
Performance Recommendations derived from ITU-T G.826/828:
ITUR F.1092 Quality Rec. for the International Reference circuit - obsolete
ITUR F.1189 Quality Rec. for the National Reference circuit - obsolete
ITUR F.1397 Quality Rec. for the International Reference circuit real hop.
ITUR F.1491 Quality Rec. for the National Reference circuit real hop.
ITU-R F. 1668 Quality Objectives for real digital fixed wireless links
Availability Recommendations:
ITU-R F.557 Availability Objective for Radio Relay Systems
ITU-R F.695 Availability Objective for Real Radio Relay Systems
Availability Recommendations derived from ITU-T G.827:
ITUR F. 1492 Application of G 827 to the international portion
ITUR F. 1493 Application of G 827 to thenational portion
ITU-R F.1703 Availability Objectives for real digital fixed wireless links
130
Vigants-Barnet Model
Where:
x =a - climatic factor.
f frequency [GHz]
d path length [km]
b Roughness factor
CFM- Composite Fade Margin
In Vigants-Barnet model the fading occurrence factor P
0
is a function of the
Path length and location, the terrain roughness and frequency band used.
S is the standard deviation (RMS) of the terrain elevations, measured
with 1 km step along the path, excluding the radio sites. The value is
limited within 6 m < S < 42 m.
3 . 1
2 . 15
|
.
|
\
|
=
S
b
10
10 .
CFM
o
P P

=
Annual outage probability:
3
0
50 4
3 . 0
|
.
|
\
|
=
d f
b x P
131
V-B Climatic Regions
132
Example Vigants Barnett
P
ND
= SESR = 6x10
-7
c f D
3
10
-CFM/10
= 0.0001042
Where:
P
ND
- Non-diversity probability of outage (SESR)
c - NA climate-terrain factor
c = 1 (from c map bellow), or x(S/15.2)
-1.3
x - NA climate factor, 1 (from x map bellow)
S - Terrain roughness, 15.2 m (from profile)
f - frequency 6.7 GHz
D - Path length, 40 km
CFM - Composite Fade Margin, 34 dB

For Terrain Roughness Module-Worksheet-Operation-Reliability
Select Vigants Barnett or KQ Factor.
133
NA Climate Terrain Factor c
Caribbean, c = 4
Hawaii, c = 4
Alaska coast, c = 0.25
Alaska interior, c = 1
134
NA Climate Factor x
*Flat terrain (w = 20', c =6)
in this climate area.
Hawaii,
x = 2

Alaska,
x = 1 (inland)
x=0.5 (coastal)
Caribbean,
x = 2
southern Yukon,
British Columbia,
x = 0.5
Other Canadian Provinces, x = 1
135
K.Q Factor
P
ND
= KQ f D
3
10
-CFM/10
= 0.0001042

Where (similar to NA path):

P
ND
- Non-diversity probability of outage (SESR)
KQ - ITU-R climate-terrain factor
KQ = x(S)
-1.3
x - Climate factor, 2.1x10
-5
(see table in Pathloss manual-
Worksheet)
S - Terrain roughness, 15.2 m (from profile)
f - 6.7 GHz
D - Path length, 40 km
CFM - Composite Fade Margin, 34 dB
136
ITU-R P.530-6
Where:
K a geo-climatic factor (Worksheet-Path profile-Geoclim)
f frequency [GHz]
d path length [km]
E
p
path inclination [m rad]
theta - average grazing angle corresponding to K=4/3 [mrad]
h1, h2 antenna heights above mean sea level [m]
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
d
h h
arctg E
p
1000
1000
2 1
The ITU-R P.530-6 model is applicable from f
min
= 15/d [GHz].
The fading occurrence factor P
0
is a function of Geo-climatic factor K (i.e.
path location), path length and inclination, grazing angle as well as
frequency band used.
Worst month outage probability:
10
10 .
CFM
o
P P

=
( )
1 . 1
2 . 1 93 . 0 3 . 3
0
1
+ =
p
E f d K P u
137
ITU-R P.530-7
The ITU-R P.530-7 model is applicable from f
min
= 15/d [GHz].
The fading occurrence factor P
0
is a function of Geo-climatic factor K (i.e.
path location), path length and inclination, as well as frequency band used.
10
10 .
CFM
o
P P

= Worst month outage probability:
Where:
K a geo-climatic factor from tables below
f frequency [GHz]
d path length [km]
E
p
path inclination [mrad]
h1, h2 antenna heights above mean sea level [m]
( )
4 . 1
89 . 0 6 . 3
0
1

+ =
p
E f d K P
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
d
h h
arctg E
p
1000
1000
2 1
138
Geo-climatic Factor ITU-R P.530-7
P
L
is the percentage of time for which the average refractivity gradient in the lowest
100 m of the atmosphere is lower than 100 N-units/km.
( ) 5 . 1 1 . 0 7
0
10 10 . 5
L
C C C
P K
Lon Lat

=
139
ContGeo-climatic Factor
140
ITU-R P.530-9/10
For detailed link design using ITU-R P.530-9, fading occurrence factor P
0
:
L
h f
p
d
K
P
00085 . 0 032 . 0 97 . 0 2 . 3
10 ) | | 1 (
100
0

+ =
Then the outage probability:
0
log 2 . 1 25 P A
t
+ =
Calculate a transition (deep to shallow fading distribution) depth:
[dB]
10
10 .
t
A
o
P P

=
ITU-R P.530-9 terrain factor K:
1
003 . 0 9 . 3 42 . 0
10
dN
a
s K

=
141
ITU-R P.530-9 New Parameters
Where
dN
1
- the point refractivity gradient in the lowest 65 m of the atmosphere not
exceeded for 1% of an average year,
S
a
- the area terrain roughness.

d
1
N is provided on a 1.5 grid in latitude and longitude in Recommendation
ITU-R P.453. The correct value for the latitude and longitude at path centre
should be obtained from the values for the four closest grid points by bilinear
interpolation.

S
a
is defined as the standard deviation of terrain heights (m) within a
110 km x 110 km area with a 30resolution(e.g.theGlobeGTOPO 30 data).
The area should be aligned with the longitude, such that the two equal halves of
the area are on each side of the longitude that goes through the path center.
142
Rain Attenuation Models
143
Crane Model
A B C D
1
D
2
D
3
E F

0.1 6.5 6.8 7.2 11.0 15.0 22.0 35.0 5.5
0.05 8.0 9.5 11.0 16.0 22.0 31.0 52.0 8.0
0.01 15.0 19.0 28.0 37.0 49.0 63.0 98.0 23.0
0.005 19.0 26.0 41.0 50.0 64.0 81.0 117.0 34.0
0.001 28.0 54.0 80.0 90.0 102.0 127.0 164.0 66.0
CRANE NORTH AMERICAN RAIN REGION
% of Time
Rain Rate
Exceeded
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
b c
e g
b c
e g
b
e
aR A
cbD b cbd b bd
b
p p
. .
.
.
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
b
e
aR A
bD
b
p p
.
1
( )
d
e g
cd
. ln
=
17 . 0
3 . 2

=
p
R g
( )
p
R c ln 03 . 0 026 . 0 = ( )
p
R d ln 6 . 0 8 . 3 =
for d <= D <= 22.5 km
for d > D
Where:
Rp is rain rate (mm/hr)
calculate by Crane table
144
Rain Rate Values
Drizzle = 0.25 mm/hour
Light rain = 1.0 mm/hour
Moderate rain = 4.0 mm/hour
Heavy rain = 16.0 mm/hour
Thunderstorm = 35.0 mm/hour
Intense thunderstorm = 100.0 mm/hour
Region B = Polar taiga (moderate)
Region C = Moderate maritime
Region D1 = Moderate continental (dry)
Region D2 = Moderate continental (mid)
Region D3 = Moderate continental (wet)
Region E = Sub-tropical (wet)
Region F = Sub-tropical (arid)
145
ContCrane Model
C (Alaska, Pacific Coast)
E (Hawaii)
E (Caribbean)
146
Rain Attenuation ITU-R P.530-7
A
0.01%
=aR
0.01%
b
D [1/(1 + D/d)] [dB]
Where: A
0.01%
- Rain attenuation exceeded <0.01% of the time, dB
R
0.01%
- Rain rate <0.01% of the time, mm/hr, from table
a - Multiplier, f (frequency/polarization), from table bellow
b - Exponent, f (frequency/polarization), from table bellow
D - Path length, km
d - Effective path length, km
d = 35 exp (-0.015R
0.01%
)
Rain Outage:
147
Coefficients for Estimating Attenuation due to the Rain
h subscript stands for horizontal polarization
v subscript stands for vertical polarization
148
Rain Availability Example
A
0.01%
= aR
0.01%
b
D [1/(1 + D/d)], dB
- Rain attenuation exceeded <0.01% of the time, dB
- Required path fade margin, dB

R
0.01%
- Rain rate exceeded <0.01% of the time (145 mm/hr, P region)
Pakistan in K-Region (42 mm/hr).
D - Path length, 5 km [mi x 1.6093]
a - Multiplier, f (18 GHz & V-polarization, from table: a
v
= 0.058)
b - Exponent, f (18 GHz & V-polarization, from table: b
v
= 1.090)
d = 35 exp (-0.015R
0.01%
) = 3.98 km

A
0.01%
= 0.058 (145)
1.09
5 [1/(1 + 5/3.98)]
= 29 dB (36 dB if horizontally-polarized, a
h
= 0.060 , b
h
= 1.127)
149
A
p
= A
0.01%

0.12 p
-(0.546 + 0.043 log p)

where: A
p
= Rain attenuation exceeded p% of the time, dB
A
0.01%
= Rain attenuation exceeded 0.01% of the time,dB
p = probability of outage, % = 100 - availability, %

For 99.995% availability, p = 0.005% (26 min/yr outage), same path
A
0.005%
= A
0.01%

0.12 (0.005
-(0.546 + 0.043 log 0.005)
)
= A
0.01%

0.12 (0.005
-0.45
) = A
0.01%
x 1.28
= 32 x 1.28 = 41 dB (51 dB if H-pol) required fade margin
Multiplier Table (replaces the above multiplier computation)
p = 1% 0.1% 0.05% 0.01% 0.005% 0.001%
Availability = 99% 99.9% 99.95% 99.99% 99.995% 99.999%
Multiplier = 0.12 0.39 0.52 1.00 1.28 2.14
For Required Availabilities other than 99.99%:
Probability Scaling Examples
150
Rain Rate in ITU-R Rain Regions
A B C D E F G H J K L M N P

0.1 2 3 5 8 6 8 12 10 20 12 15 22 35 65
0.03 5 6 9 13 12 15 20 18 28 23 33 40 65
0.01 8 12 15 19 22 28 30 32 35 42 60 63 95 145
0.003 14 21 26 29 41 54 45 55 45 70 105 95 140 200
0.001 22 32 42 42 70 78 65 83 55 100 150 120 180 250
ITU-R RAIN REGION
% of Time
Rain Rate
Exceeded
If reliable local rain rate data are available, they shall be preferred to the
world averaged data from ITU-R.
Pakistan in K - Region.
By Worst Month Availability Pakistan in Region 3 and Class B
151
Classification of Countries by Worst Month
152
Excess Path Attenuation for Rainfall intensity exceeded
ITU-T rain regions (Table 1)
b
dB
aR = |
Where: dB is the unit excess path attenuation with respect
to free-space loss exceeded for the percentage of time [dB/km]
a, b are regression coefficients for given polarization ( Table 2)
R is rain rate exceeded for specified percentage of time (Table 1)
153
Coefficients for estimating attenuation due to the rain
h subscript stands for horizontal polarization
v subscript stands for vertical polarization
(Table 2)
154
Rain Attenuation Curves
20
Frequency, GHz
H POL
V POL
Rain Rate
(mm/hr)
200
150
100
50
75
25
5
10
15
0
0 10 20 30 40
10
A
t
t
e
n
u
a
t
i
o
n
,

d
B
/
k
m

155
ITU-R Rain Regions Maps
156
Map of Average Temperature
0
F
0
C
-50 -46
-40 -40
-30 -34
-20 -29
-10 -23
0 -18
10 -12
20 -7
30 -1
40 4
50 10
60 16
70 21
80 27

50
60
70
80
70
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20 -40
-50
-30
80 70
0
F
157
7.5 GHz Case
158
Rain and Co-channel Operation
For co-channel operation, rain can also affect Cross-polar
discrimination (XPD) and degrade XPD threshold.
Severity of such degradation depends on system parameters like:
Antenna XPD and XPIF (Cross-polar Improvement Factor) of XPIC
(Cross-polar Interference Canceller).
This option is available in Worksheet-Operation-Co-channel XPD
159
Table with Results Full Report
Text Report with Reliability Calculation, Option in Module- Worksheet - report
160
Diversity Options
Frequency diversity: a single model
available in Pathloss v.4.0,
Space Diversity: Baseband Switching,
- Method Nortel,
- Method Alcatel-Richardson,
- Method Harris Farinon
Space Diversity: IF Combining,
Methods are used to combine the
improvement factors for flat and selective
fading, respectively,
Angle diversity: Derived from SD under
assumption of fixed antenna separation s=
9.1m. Improvement factor limited to I=20.
Option is available in Worksheet
Operation - Diversity Calculation
161
Frequency Diversity
10 /
10
.
80
CMF
fd
f
f
d f
I
|
|
.
|
\
|A
=
Where:
Af : frequency separation [GHz]
f : carrier frequency [GHz],
CMF: composite fade margin [dB].
This equation applies only for the following ranges of parameters:
2 s f s 11 GH
30 s d s 70 km
Af / f s 5%
Boundary value shall be used if boundary limit is exceeded.
I
fd
is limited to 5.
162
Space Diversity
Baseband Switching:
IF Combining:
10
2 2 3
10 . . . 10 2 . 1
A
sd
v s
d
f
I

=
20
] [
10
dB v
v=
( )
10
4
2
2 3
10 .
1
. 16
. . 10 2 . 1
c
A
sd
v
v
s
d
f
I
+
=

|
.
|
\
|
+
+ + =
2
1
log . 20 6 . 2
v
A A
t c
Where: s Rx antenna separation [m]
f frequency [GHz]
d path length [km]
v
dB
difference between main and diversity antenna gains [dB]
A
c
combined thermal fade margin [dB]
A
t
greater of the main and diversity thermal fade margins [dB]
163
SD Calculation Example
Outage Time: T
SD
=T
ND
/I
SD
NA Calculation: I
SD
=7x10
-5
f s
2
10
CFM/10
/D
= 42 (SD dish separation s = 30 ft / 9.1 meter)
Tnd = U(0.0001042) x SESR (8 x 10e6) x Avg. Temp
= 834 SES /yr
T
SD
= 834/42 = 20 SES/yr
ITU-R Calculation: I
SD
=1.2x10
-3
f s
2
10
CFM/10
/D
= 42 (s = 9.1 m), same as NA above
Tnd = U(0.000142) x SESR(2.59 x 10e6) = 270
T
SD
= 270/42 = 7 SES/any month
Space Diversity Improvement Factor:
Where: Frequency f= 6.7 GHz, Composite fade margin CFM=34
dB and distance D= 40 km.
164
Frequency Selective Fading
Selective fading or frequency selective fading is a radio
propagation anomaly caused by partial cancellation of a radio
signal by itself the signal arrives at the receiver by two
different paths and at least one of the paths is changing
(lengthening or shortening). The two paths can both be from
skyway or one be ground wave.
The Effect can be counteracted by applying some diversity
scheme, for example OFDMA or by using two receivers with
separate antennas spaced a quarter-wavelength apart, or a
specially-designed diversity receivers with two antennas. Such
a receiver continuously compares the signals arriving at the two
antennas and presents the better signal.
165
Multipath , Upfade and Downfade
Multipath Fading is the dominant fading mechanism for
frequencies lower than 10GHz. A reflected wave causes a
multipath, i.e. when a reflected wave reaches the receiver as
the direct wave that travels in a straight line from the
transmitter
If the two signals reach in phase then the signal amplifies.
this is called upfade.
Upfade max=10 log d 0.03d (dB) : d is path length in Km
If the two waves reach the receiver out of phase they weaken
the overall signal. A location where a signal is canceled out
by multipath is called null or downfade.
As a thumb rule, multipath fading, for radio links having
bandwidths less than 40MHz and path lengths less than
30Km is described as flat instead of frequency selective.

166

Flat Fading

A fade where all frequencies in the channel are equally affected.
There is barely noticeable variation of the amplitude of the
signal across the channel bandwidth .
Recommendation for Flat Fading are flat fade margin of a link
can be improved by using larger antennas, a higher-power
microwave transmitter, lower loss feed line and splitting a
longer path into two shorter hops.
On water paths at frequencies above 3 GHz, it is advantageous
to choose vertical polarization.
167
Calculating Frequency Selective Fading
(
+ =
o
m
B
NM
o
m
B
M sel
NM M
W W P
t
t
t
t
q
2
20
2
20
10 10 15 . 2

0
2
43 . 0
t
t
q
m
sf P
sel
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
4 / 3
100
2 . 0 exp 1
o
P
q
2 / 3
50
7 . 0
|
.
|
\
|
=
d
m
t
B
M
, B
NM
minimum and non-minimum phase signature depth [dB]
W
M
, W
NM
- minimum and non-minimum phase signature width [GHz]
d path length [km]
In case the signature area sf is not available (more conservative result):
Probability of outage due to the selective fading (ITU-R Rep. 784-3):
Where fading activity factor: And typical echo delay:
168
Interference Fade Margin
For each interfering transmitter, the receive power level in
dBm is compared to the maximum power level to determine
whether the interference is acceptable.
Composite Fade Margin (CFM) is the fade margin applied to
multipath fade outage equations for a digital microwave radio.
CFM = TFM + DFM + IFM + AIFM
CFM = -10 log (10-TFM/10 + 10 DFM/10 + 10-IFM/10 +
10-AIFM/10 ).
Dispersive fade margin is provided by radio's manufacturer,
and is determined by the type of modulation, effectiveness of
any equalization in the receive path, and the multipath signal's
time delay. Dispersive fade margin characterizes the radio's
robustness to dispersive (spectrum-distortion) fades.

169
ContInterference Fade Margin
Where
TFM = Flat fade margin (the difference between
the normal (unfaded) RSL and the BER=1 x10-3 digital
signal loss-of frame point)
DFM = Dispersive fade margin (contribution to outage that
accounts for in-band distortion that can at times cause a
digital system to fail when the flat fade is less than that
required to reach the thermal noise threshold ).
IFM = Interference fade margin .
AIFM =Adjacent-channel interference fade margin
(contribution to system outage resulting from the broad
transmit spectra of digital systems that have sufficient energy
that spills over into adjacent channel digital receivers).
170
Dispersive Fade Margin
6(2) 12(4) 18(6) 24(8) 30(10) 36(12)
10
30
50
70
72 dB
2
n
s
e
c

55 dB
50 dB = Minimum link DFM for no ES
degradation due to dispersion
30 dB
2
5
n
s
e
c
6
.
3
n
s
e
c

(
R
u
m
m
l
e
r
s

M
o
d
e
l
)

Required antenna
discrimination
(A1+A2)
= Multipath Delay, nsec/feet (m)
Link DFM = Radio DFM + Antenna Discriminations to the Multipath Ray
= 50 dB min. for Good Error Performance
D
i
s
p
e
r
s
i
v
e

F
a
d
e

M
a
r
g
i
n

@
1
0
-
3

B
E
R
,

d
B

Radio-only DFM
0 10
10 .
DFS
o sel
P P

=
|
.
|
\
|
=
4 . 158
log . 10 6 . 17
sf
DFS
171
Microwave Link Multipath Outage Models

A major concern for microwave system users is how often and
for how long a system might be out of service. An outage in a
digital microwave link occurs with a loss of Digital Signal
frame sync for more than 10 sec. Digital signal frame loss
typically occurs when the BER increases beyond 1 x 10-3.
172
Outage Availability and Unavailability
Outage (Unavailability) (%) = (SES / t) x 100
Where :
t = time period (expressed in seconds)
SES = severely errored second (Error not exceed 10-3 more
then 0.2% of second in any month)

Availability is expressed as a percentage as : -
A = 100 - Outage (Unavailability).

A digital link is unavailable for service or performance
prediction/verification after a ten consecutive BER> 1 x 10-3
SES outage period.

173
SD Effect on Selective Fading
The SD improvement factor, for the dispersive (frequency selective) component of
the fade margin, is independent of the vertical antenna separation for values
greater then 3m. As the antenna separation is reduced bellow 3m, the
improvement factor decreases rapidly:

Combining Method Nortel:
Combining Method Alcatel-Richardson:
s
D
=8.5m
Where: I
SD
SD improvement factor for flat fading
(all previous formulae)
P probability of flat fading (also P
ND
)
FM thermal + interference fade margin
DFM dispersive fade margin
R
D
correlation coefficient
2
10 10
10 10
~
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+

D
DFM
D
FM
SDtotal
s
R
s
P
sel SD
sel
SD
SDtotal
I
P
I
P
P
_
+ =
10
_
10 09 . 0
DFM
sel SD
d
f
I =
174
Variable Parameters
Parameters controlling space diversity:
Diversity antenna diameter and gain
Diversity antenna height (AGL)
Loss of the transmission line and branching circuitry for diversity antenna
Option available in Microwave Worksheet then double click on antenna.
175
Diffraction Algorithms Overview
Diffraction loss represents the deficiency, with respect to free space loss, in
electromagnetic energy of the radio beam that was diffracted (bent) behind the
obstacle entering the area around the line of interconnection (line of sight)
between receiver and transmitter.

There are two limiting cases that can be easily handled mathematically:
Knife-edge like obstacle
Earth bulge (ellipsoid like) obstacle
Practicalcasearesomewhatinbetweentheabovetwocasesandhavetobe
solved numerically:

Pathloss contains following numerical diffraction algorithms:
Knife Edge, Isolated Obstacle, Longley and Rice, Pathloss (automatic selection
of the calculation algorithm), NSMA, Average, Height Gain, Two ray optics,
TIREM.
176
Diffraction
More complex diffraction algorithms use
multiple knife-edges to better fit the shape of
terrain and clutter:
Bullington model
Epstein Peterson model
Deygout model
Giovanelli model
A wave-front reaching an obstacle, which is comparable in size to the wave-length, is bended
around the obstacle in a phenomenon called diffraction. According to Huygens theory, each
point of original wave-front is a source of elementary spherical wave, which all together form a
new wave-front behind the obstacle. This theory was later formulated mathematically by
Fresnel, resulting in integral theory of diffraction. However analytical solution are available for
simple cases only (knife-edge, ellipsoid, sphere).
177
Diffraction Losses Knife-edge Obstacle
Signal level can be obtained by solving
Fresnel integral. Approximate solution:
Where:
2 1
2 1
) ( 2
d d
d d
h v
+
=
178
Bullington Model
Bullingtons model replaces two knife edges with a single equivalent edge to reduce
the number of calculations.
179
Multiple Knife-Edges Methods
Model Epstein-Peterson, Deygout
This model is used in most planning tools, including Pathloss algorithms. It
resembles reality closely enough, but has a limited accuracy. E.g. oval shaped
hills are not well modeled by multiple knife edges. Deygout method is limited
to two knife-edges.
180
Diffraction Loss Concept
Diffraction loss over knife-edge like obstacle, option available on Module - Diffraction - Average
181
Diffraction Parameters
Diffraction loss can also be calculated as
a function of frequency, K-factor and
antenna height.
All parameters used in these variable
calculations are local, except polarization.
Option is available in Module-Reflection-
Variables.
182
Refractive Ray Bending
K = 1 (No refraction)
K = 2/3
K approaches infinity
Moderate Negative
Gradient: Flat Earth
K < 0
DUCTING
K =2
K =4/3 ( Mean)
STANDARD
EARTH
SUPERREFRACTIVE
SUBREFRACTIVE
K = -1
Steep Gradient: Possible
Blackout
K = -0.5
Extreme Gradient: Blackout
K = 2/3 Slightly Sub refractive
K = Moderately Sub refractive
K = 5/12
Humidity Inversion: Extreme Earths
Bulge: Diffraction Fade
183
Antenna Height Variation
Choosing antenna heights 4 degrees of freedom. Option is available in Module-Reflection
184
K variation in Pathloss
Option available in Module-Reflection-Variable-Earth Radius Factor
185
Two Ray Optics
Reflection analysis is based on two-ray optics and is limited to a single specular
reflection. The received signal is a vector addition of the direct signal and the
reflected signal. The amplitude of the reflected signal depends on:

Theoretical reflection coefficient
Terrain roughness
ray divergence
ground cover over reflection surface
antenna discrimination
additional loss due to the lack of clearance
Received signal amplitude:
Where:
R reflection coefficient amplitude (R=0 to R= -0.1)
l - wavelength [m]
r difference in path-length between the direct and reflected signal path [m]
v,h
phase shift which occurs on reflection (close to 180 deg.), polarization dependant
(
|
.
|
\
|
A
+ =
h v
r
R R A
,
2
2
cos 2 1 log 10
t
186
Dispersion Analysis
During dispersion analysis, Pathloss user can calculate:
Location of the reflection point on the path,
Delay of the reflected ray relative to direct ray,
Reflection loss relative to the FSL of a direct ray.
Option available Module-Reflection-Dispersion
187
Modifying Reflection Parameters
Terrain roughness with reduce theoretical reflection coefficient. The higher the
roughness, the lower the magnitude of reflection coefficient,
Any ground cover will contribute by additional loss to the specular reflection
(water, desert: 0-1 dB; fields with grass: 1-3 dB; sage brush and high
grass: 3-6 dB; trees and forests: 8-15 dB),
Antenna discrimination (which depends on the main-lobe beamwidth) helps to
discriminate the reflected signal.
Ray divergence takes into account the scattering effects cause by Earth curvature.
Option available Module-Reflection-Modify-Parameters.
188
Constant Gradient Trace
Rays are straight.
Constant gradient ray trace used to determine reflective characteristics. Angle
between rays determined by program. Option is available in Module-Multipath
189
Variable Gradient Trace
Rays are curved.
Atmospheric Duct
Variable gradient ray trace used to determine ducting & atmospheric anomalies. Angle between
rays determined by program. Option is available in Module-Multipath
190
Network Overview
Option available in Module-Network
191
Network Background
Background is generated from the DTM installed, option available Module-
Network-Site Data-Show background
192
Site List
Can be printed out as a special report, option available Module-Network-Site Data-Site List

193
Link List
Review of the incorporated xxx.pl4, option available Module-Network-Site Data-Site List

194
Importing Sites into Pathloss
Sites can be imported into site list:
by importing xxx.pl4 files
by importing xxx.txt file
by importing xxx.csv file
transformed into text file
by importing Mapinfo xxx.mif files

Links can be imported into site list:
by importing xxx.txt file
by importing xxx.csv file
transformed into text file
by importing Mapinfo xxx.mif files

Pathloss v.4.0 exports into xxx.csv file
which can be converted into MS Excel
xxx.xls file.

Option available in Module-Map grid-
Site data- Site List-Import-Site Text
File & Link file
195
Interference Calculation Procedure
Interference analysis calculates
threshold degradations of all the
receivers in a specified network, using
frequency plan defined by the Pathloss
user,
Digital Interference Objective is
maximum allowable Rx threshold
degradation,
Coordination Distance specifies the
maximum length of interfering path,
Maximum Frequency Separation
excludes all the interferers that fall
outside of it,
Default Minimum Interference Level is
used if T/I data are not available for
the Radio in its radio data file,
Calculation Margin sets the limit for
reported interference cases.
Option in Module-Network-
Interference-Calc Intra
196
Interference Reports
Shows threshold degradation for each interferer-victim pair. Option is on
Module-Network-Interference-Reports.

197
Repeated Analysis Method
Error log indicating missing data in hop description file xxxx.pl4, which prevented a
successful calculation of Rx threshold degradation during interference analysis.
Option is on Module-Network-Interference-View Error Log.
A Transmission Planner repeatedly uses interference analysis to calculate
threshold degradations, and manually modifies the frequency plan to ensure, the
threshold degradations fall bellow tolerable level (1 dB intrasystem, 3 dB
intersystem).
198
Cross-reference Report
Highlighted case show the threshold degradation exceeding
preset tolerable value. Option is on Module-Network-
Interference-Reports.

199
Passive Repeaters
WHY TO USE THEM:
When a microwave hop is required in a place which has some
unavoidable physical obstacles.
Where a mountain peak has to be surmounted which may be so
inaccessible that power cannot be provided for a usual active repeater.
200
Configuration of Passive Link
View from reflector site
View from terminal site
201
Double Plane Repeater
Bird-view
202
Plane Reflector Passive Repeater
Option is available in Module-Worksheet-Operations-Create Passive Repeater
203
Passive Repeater Data Plane Reflector
Option is available in Module-Worksheet-Report- Passive
204
Back-to-back Antenna Passive Repeater
Option is available in Module-Worksheet-Operations-Create Passive Repeater
205
Passive Repeater Data Back-to-back
Option is available in Module-Worksheet-Report- Passive
206
Network Snapshot
Possibility of backdrop file insertion, option in module-network
207
Backdrop Image in Pathloss v.4.0
Option is available in Module-Map grid-Site Data- Backdrop
208
Elevation View
Option is available in Module-Map grid-Site Data- Elevation View
209
Backdrop Configuration
Directory and Index File
has to be configured for:
1. Backdrop Image
2. Terrain Elevation Data
3. Clutter Height Data

Backdrop Image must be in .TIF
format

Datum or Ellipsoid as well
As UTM Zone must correspond
to that of the GIS source

Option is available in Module-
Map grid-Site Data- Backdrop

210
Microwave Wave Radio File Definition
Files for well known
radio manufacturers
are available on
Pathloss CD-ROM,
in Equipment/mrs
directory.
211
Microwave Wave Antenna File Definition
Files for well known antenna manufacturers
are available on Pathloss CD-ROM, in
Equipment /mas directory.
212
Step by Step Procedure on MW RR Hop Design
1. Perform sites selection (map study, finding of coordinates)
2. Choose transmission capacity and HW protection (as per customer, # of
BTS, etc.)
3. Choose frequency band (based on distance and TRM capacity)
4. Generate profile (DTM, map, determine HASL)
5. Suggest preliminary antenna heights (use clearance criteria)
6. Perform site survey, path survey (verify HASL, find CP, clutter)
7. LOS OK/not OK! (for realistic minimum antenna height)
8. Perform diffraction analysis (if needed in exceptional cases)
9. Perform reflection analysis (if needed for specular reflections)
10. SD for reflection mitigation needed/not needed??
11. Determine precise minimum main (and SD) antenna heights
12. Determine radio and feeder type
213
Step by Step Procedure on MW RR Hop Design (cont.)
Determine preliminary Tx power and Antenna Size/Type (based on frequency
band, TRM capacity and distance of the hop)
Apply SD if needed of FD/HD if applicable (2
nd
run)
Check clearance criteria for SD antenna (2
nd
run)
Calculate the link budget and fade margin
Calculate the percentages of outage due to the rain and multipath fading
(SES, ES, BBER, UAT)
Compare with performance allocations from the ITU standard (Rule of
thumb, scalable G.821 green table)
Complies with standard? (If not, change antenna and/or Tx power, add SD
and repeat 13-19)
Perform End-to-end performance calculation for the complete link (standard
G. 826)
Complies with standard? (If not, change antenna and/or Tx power, add SD
and repeat 13-21)
214
Step by Step Procedure on MW RR Hop Design (cont.2)
1. Allocate a frequency channel and choose polarization
2. Decide upon co-channel operation (if needed)
3. Decide upon ATPC range
4. Perform intra-system interference analysis
5. Threshold degradations less then 3 dB? (If not, repeat 22-26 with different
frequency channel and/or polarization)
6. Print the performance calculation report and profile
7. Allocate [IP] address for network management (if applicable)
8. END

Note: The above is a generic procedure. Some steps can be cancelled in particular
cases. For example, designing 30 hops in 23, 26 GHz band in the city,
that are just 1-2 kmlong,doesntrequirecomprehensiveperformanceanalysis,
since there will be no fading. Designing just one MW hop in the middle of a
desert, obviouslydoesntrequireintra-system interference analysis.
215
Process Flowchart: MW Link Design
Receive Customer Input
RPF
Budgetary Quote
Review Input
Understand
Clarify
Recommend

Obtain Min. Information
Protection Scheme
Coordinates or Path Length
Capacity

Min.
Information
Obtained?
Perform Preliminary Analysis and Design
Path Calculations
Routing
Equipment Determination
System Layout

Profiles
Available
?
Perform Field Survey
Verify Sites
Path Clearance
Antenna Centerlines
Mounting Conditions
Storage Capability
NO YES
NO
A
YES
216
ContProcess Flowchart
B
Meet
Clearance
Criteria
?
Meet
SES/any month
Objective
?
Modify Design
Wave guide Type
Dish Size
Tx Output Power
Diversity Scheme

Modify Design
Change
Centerline
Begin Frequency
Interference Study
Intra-System
Inter-System
YES
YES
YES
NO
NO
A
217
ContProcess Flowchart
Begin Frequency
Interface Study
Intra-System
Inter-System
Frequency Pairs
Assigned?
Determine Pairs
ITU-T Channel Plans
Minimum T/R Spacing
Perform Frequency
Interference Study
T/I Curves
Antenna Type/Size
and patterns
Tx Output Power
Polarization
Radio Capacities
Coordinates (or
Azmuths
and Distance)
NO
YES
B
HL-Low
Violations
?

NO
YES
Modify Design
Move Frequency pairs

Intra-System
Interference
Modify Design
Move Frequency pairs
Obtain Additional Pairs
Change Polarization
Upgrade Antennas
DONE
NO
YES
218
Difficult Areas for Microwave Links
In areas with lots of rain, use the lowest frequency band
allowed for the project.
Microwave hops over or in the vicinity of the large water
surfaces and flat land areas can cause severe multipath
fading. Reflections may be avoided by selecting sites that are
shielded from the reflected rays.
Hot and humid coastal areas.

219
Troubleshooting Procedure
Isolate the problem to the specific link with BER test, internal network management
system reports, etc.
Isolate modules by switching off-line (substitution) by local or remote command.
Is the ES impairment two-way?
Does it correlate with nighttime power fade activity?
If the ES events are daytime occurrences with no fade activity, do open door alarms
or other reportssuggestmanual intervention?
Are the ES events seen in both diversity receivers? Simultaneously?
If so, does a far-end transmit chain switch correct the problem?
If not, does it follow an antenna feeder system (Receiver, Demodulator, Decoder,
Multiplexer)?
Are the ES Continuous or Random, Recurring or Periodic?
Are there events like Unavailability (>10 CSES), Outage (SES), Burst ES, Dribbling
ES (excessive RBER)? What is their statistical distribution?

220
Important Recommendations
Use higher frequency bands for shorter hops and lower
frequency bands for longer hops.
Avoid lower frequency bands in urban areas.
Use star and hub configurations for smaller networks and ring
configuration for larger networks.
In areas with heavy precipitation , if possible, use frequency
bands below 10 GHz.
Use protected systems (1+1) for all important and/or high-
capacity links.
Leave enough spare capacity for future expansion of the
system.
221
Space diversity is a very expensive way of improving the
performance of the microwave link and it should be used
carefully and as a last resort.
The activities of microwave path planning and frequency
planning preferably should be performed in parallel with line of
sight activities and other network design activities for best
efficiency.
Use updated maps that are not more than a year old. The
terrain itself can change drastically in a very short time period.
Make sure everyone on the project is using the same maps,
datums and coordinate systems.

222
Perform detailed path surveys on ALL microwave hops. Maps
are used only for initial planning, as a first approximation.
Below 10 GHz , multipath outage increases rapidly with path
length. It also increases with frequency , climatic factors and
average annual temperature. Multipath effect can be reduced
with higher fade margin. If the path has excessive path outage
the performance can be improved by using one of the diversity
methods.
223
Channel Table 1 (1.4 6 GHz)
224
Channel Table 2 (7-13 GHz)
225
226
227
Case Studies
Design of MW 16E1 PDH Hop in 15 GHz
Diffraction Loss on PDH hop in 8 GHz
Reflection Analysis for Over-water 6 GHz hop
Rain Attenuation for PDH 8E1 hop in 18 GHz
MW PDH Link from BTS to BSC
Design of a MW SDH Transmission Link 4+0
Interference Analysis in Multan City, Pakistan
Backdrop Image of Sanaa, Yemen
228
Where to find the Case Studies?
Go to the files copied from the CD-ROM you have received from the trainer:
Beside the individual Case Studies, there are some other radio and antenna
definition files in this directory.
229
Acronyms 1
1+1 -Single line protection switching (FD, HS, etc.)
1:N, 2:N -Multiline protection switching (N = no. of bearer channels)

ABL -Atmospheric Boundary Layer
ACO -Alarm Cutoff
ACU -Antenna Coupling Unit
A/D -Analog-to-Digital (conversion)
ADM -Add/Drop Multiplexer
ADPCM -Adaptive Differential PCM
ADSL -Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line
AGC -Automatic Gain Control
AIS -AlarmIndicationSignal(AllOnesatDS1,BlueatDS3)
AMI -Alternate Mark Inversion (DS1)
AMPS -Advanced Mobile Phone System (FDMA -Analog Cellular)
ANSI -American National Standards Institute
APS -Automatic Protection Switching
ASAE/AFDE -Adaptive [Frequency Domain] Slope Amplitude Equalizer
ASCII -American Standard Code for Information Interchange
ATDE -Adaptive Time Domain (transversal) Equalizer
ATM -Asynchronous Transfer Mode
ATPC -Automatic Transmitter Power Control (also APC)
AU -Administration Unit (SDH)
AZD -Ambiguity Zone (error) Detection (QPR Radios)

B3ZS -Bipolar with 3-Zero Substitution (DS3)
BBER -Background Block Error Rate (EB/time period)
BER -Bit Error Ratio or Rate (Errors/time period)
BERTS -BER Test Set (being replaced with internal NMS)
BISDN -Broadband ISDN
BITS -Building Integrated Timing Supply
BLSR -Bi-directional Line-Switched Ring
BPV -Bipolar Violation
BWA -Broadband Wireless Access
CAD/CAM -Computer Aided Design/Manufacturing
CB - Channel Bank (1st order mux)
CBR - Constant Bit Rate (ATM)
CCC -Clear Channel Capability
CCDP -Co-Channel Dual Polarized link
CCIR -International Radio Consultative Committee (now ITU-R)
CCITT -International Telephone and Telegraph
Consultative Committee (now ITU-T)
CDMA -Code Division Multiple Access (spread spectrum)
CDPD -Cellular Digital Packet Data
CDV -Cell Delay Variation (ATM)
CEPT -Conference of European Postal and
Telecommunications administrations
CFM -Composite Fade Margin
CGA -Carrier Group Alarm
CIR -Carrier-to-Interference Ratio (also C/I Ratio)
CIT -Craft Interface Terminal
CLR -Cell Loss Ratio (ATM)
CMI -Coded Mark Inversion (E4)
CMISE -Common Management Information Service Element
CNR -Carrier-to-Noise Ratio (also C/N Ratio)
CO -Central Office
CODEC -Coder/Decoder
CPE -Customer Premises Equipment
CRC -Cyclic Redundancy Check (on ESF T1 trunks)
CSMA/CD -Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
CSU/DSU -Channel Service Unit/Data Service Unit
CV -Coding Violation

DACS -Digital Access Crossconnect System ( Lucent
Technologies ). See DCS.
DADE -Diversity Antenna Differential Equalization or
Differential Absolute Delay Equalization
DCC -Digital Communications Channel (e.g., SONET OAM&P)
230
Acronyms 2

FM -Frequency Modulation
FM-FDM -FM radio with FDM multiplex (also FDMA)
FSK -Frequency Shift Keying
FTTC -Fiber To The Curb
FTTH -Fiber To The Home
FWL -Fixed Wireless Local Loop (also WLL)
FXO, FXS -Foreign eXchange unit at CO, subscriber (VF)

Gbit/s -Gigabits per second (also Gb/s, Gbps)
GHz -Gigahertz(10
9
Hz)
GPS -Global Positioning Satellite system
GUI -Graphical User Interface

HD -Hybrid Diversity
HDB3 -High Density Bipolar order 3 (E1-E3)
HFC -Hybrid Fiber/Coax cable (see FTTH and FTTC)
HDSL -High bit-rate Digital Subscriber Line
HNM -Harris Network Management System
HP - High Performance (e.g., shrouded antenna)
HS - Monitored Hot Standby (also MHSB)
HSSI - High Speed Serial Interface

IEC - International Electrotechnology Commission
IF - Intermediate Frequency
IFM -Interference Fade Margin
IP - Internet Protocol
ISDN - Integrated Services Digital Network
ISI - Intersymbol Interference
ISO - International Standards Organization
ITU-R - International Telecommunication Union-
Radiocommunications Sector
ITU-T - International Telecommunication Union-
Telecommunication Standardization Sector

kbit/s -kilobits per second (also kb/s, kbps)
kHz -kilohertz (10
3
Hz)
DCE -Data Circuit-Termination Equipment
DCS -Digital Access Crossconnect System (also DXC, TCS,
DACCS, DACS - Lucent)
DLC -Digital Local Loop Carrier (fiber)
DFM -Dispersive Fade Margin
DRRS -Digital Radio-Relay System
DS0, 1,2,3 -North American Digital Signals levels 0, 1, 2, 3
DSP -Digital Signal Processing
DS -Direct Sequence (spread spectrum - CDMA)
DSX -Digital Cross-Connect panel (-1, -3 for DS1, DS3)
DTE -Data Terminating Equipment

E1, E2, E3, E4 -CEPT Digital Trunks or Signals
EB -Errored Block (Sonet and SDH)
%EFS -%Error-free seconds (over a measurement period)
ESR -Errored Second Ratio (ES/time period)
EIRP -ERP ref. to an Isotropic Antenna (= ERP+2.2 dB)
EIA -ElectronicIndustriesAssociation(assnw/TIA)
EMC -Electromagnetic Compatibility
EMI -Electromagnetic Interference
EPROM -Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory
EPO -Error Performance Objective
ERP -Effective Radiated Power ref. to a Dipole Antenna
ES -Errored Second
ESF -Extended Super Frame
ESR -Errored Second Ratio (ES/Time Period)
ETSI -European Telecommunication Standards
Institute (ANSI equivalent)

FD -Frequency Diversity
FDDI -Fiber Distributed Data Interface
FDM -Frequency Division Multiplex
FDMA -Frequency Division Multiple Access (also FM-FDM)
FEC -Forward Error Correction
FH -Frequency Hopping (spread spectrum)
FITS -Failures In Time (10
9
hours)
231
Acronyms 3
LAN -Local Area Network
LED -Light Emitting Diode
LNC -Low Noise Converter
LOS -Loss Of Signal, Line Of Sight
LOF -Loss Of Frame synchronization
LOP -Loss Of Pointer (SONET)
LSB -Least Significant Bit

MAN -Metropolitan Area Network
Mbit/s -Megabits per second (also Mb/s, Mbps)
MHz -Megahertz (10
6
Hz)
micron -10
-6
meter (= 1000 nm - lightwave)
MIS -Management Information System
MODEM -MODulator/DEModulator
MPEG -Motion Picture Experts Group
mrad -milliradian (also mr)
msec -millisecond (also ms)
MTBF -Mean Time Between Failure
MTBMA -Mean Time Between Maintenance Activities
MTBO -Mean Time Between Outage
MTR -Mean Time to Restore (after failure)
MTSO -Mobile Telephone Switching Office (also MSO,
MTX, MSC)
MTTR -Mean Time To Repair (at the site)
MUX -Multiplexer

ND -Non-Diversity
NE -Near-End or transport Network Element
Node -SONET/SDH line terminating device
nm -nanometer (10
-9
meter), lightwave
NMS -Network Management System
NNI -Network Node Interface
NP -Non-Protected
NPL -Net Path Loss
NRZ -Non-Return to Zero
nsec -nanosecond (10
-9
sec) - also ns

OAM&P -Operations, Administration, Maintenance,
and Provisioning functions (usually SONET/SDH)
OC-1,-3 -Optical Carrier Level 1, 3 Signal (51, 155 Mbit/s)
OC-3c -OC-3 Concatenated Signal for Broadband/ATM
OCUDP -Office Channel Unit Data Port
OOF -Out Of Frame
OPX -Off-Premises eXtensions (VF)
OQPSK -Offset QPSK
OSI -Open Systems Interconnection

PA -Power Amplifier
PAD -Packet Assembler/Disassembler
PBX -Private Branch eXchange (also PABX)
PCM -Pulse Code Modulation
PCR -Peak Cell Rate (ATM), Paperless Chart Recorder
PCS -Personal Communications Services (also PCN)
PDH -Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy
PLL -Phased-Locked Loop
P-MP -Point-to-Multipoint access radio
PN -Psuedo-Noise sequence code (spread spectrum/CDMA)
P-P -Point-to-Point radio-relay link
POH -Path Overhead (SONET/SDH)
POTS -Plain Old Telephone Service
PSTN -Public Switched Telephone Network
PTE -Path Terminating Equipment (SONET)
PVC -Permanent Virtual Circuit/Connection (ATM)

QAM -Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
QD -Quadruple Diversity
QoS -Quality of Service (ATM)
QPRS -Quadrature Partial Response Signaling (also QPR)
QPSK -Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
232
Acronyms 4
RBER -Residual (dribbling) BER
Ring -Circular configuration of nodes
RF -Radio Frequency
RR-STM -STM-0 (51 Mbit/s) for Radio Relay. Also sub-STM-1
RRRP -Radio-Relay Reference Point (SDH)
RSL -Receive Signal Level
RSVP -Resource reSerVation Protocol (ATM)
RTU -Remote Terminal Unit
RZ -Return to Zero

SCADA -Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
SCU -Service Channel Unit
SDH -Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (ETSI standard))
SD -Space Diversity
SEP -Severely Errored Period (G.828). See CSES
SEPI -SEP Intensity
SES -Severely-Errored Second
SESR -Severely-Errored Second Ratio (SES/time period)
SF -Super Frame (format for DS1 signal)
SMDS -Switched Multi-megabit Data Service
SNA -Systems Network Architecture
SNMP -Simple Network Management Protocol
SOH -Section Overhead (SONET/SDH)
SONET -Synchronous Optical NETwork (ANSI standard)
SPE -Synchronous Payload Envelope (SONET)
SPU -Signal Processing Unit
ST -Split Transmitters (to separate antennas)
STE -Section Terminating Equipment (SONET)
STM-n -Synchronous Transport Module (SDH transport)
STS-n -Synchronous Transport Signal (SONET transport)
STS-3c -STS-3 Concatenated Signal (for Broadband/ATM)
SVC -Switched Virtual Circuit (ATM)

T1,T3 -North American digital trunks or facilities
T1M1 & T1X1 -ANSI telecommunications standards committees
TABS -Telemetry Asynchronous Byte Serial (Protocol)
TBOS -Telemetry Byte-Oriented Serial (Protocol)
TCM -Trellis Code Modulation
TDMA -Time Division Multiple Access
TFM -Thermal (flat) Fade Margin (also FFM)
TIA -Telecommunications Industries Association
(assnw/EIA)
TL1 -Transaction Language 1
TMN -Telecommunication Management Network
TSA -Time Slot Assignment
TSI -Time Slot Interchange
TU -Tributary Unit (SDH)
TUG -Tributary Unit Group (SDH)

UAS -UnAvailable (failed) Seconds (also NAS)
UBR -Unspecified Bit Rate (ATM)
UNI -User-to-Network Interface
UPSR -Unidirectional Path-Switched Ring

VBR -Variable Bit Rate (ATM)
VC -Virtual Container (SDH)
VCI -Virtual Channel Indicator (ATM)
VDSL -Very high speed Digital Subscriber Line
VF -Voice Frequency
VP -Virtual Path (ATM)
VSAT -Very Small Aperture Terminal (satellite)
VT -Virtual Tributary (SONET)
VTG -Virtual Tributary Group (SONET)

WAN -Wide Area Network
WLL -Wireless Local Loop (also FWL)
www -World Wide Web

XPD -Cross-Pol antenna Discrimination
XPIC -Cross-Pol Interference Canceller for CCDP links
XPU -Expansion Unit

MW Links Planning With Pathloss IV

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MW Links Planning With Pathloss IV

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Electromagnetic energy directed by the transmitting antenna

Imran Siddiqui copy right reserved

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