Margaret K.

Semakula

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Over view
Introduction Outdoor Air Pollution

Indoor Air Pollution

Control Measures Principles in Pollution Control
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History of air pollution:

Humans probably first experienced harm from

air pollution when they burnt fires in caves; presence of soot.

Since then we have gone on to pollute more of

the earth's surface.

Until recently, environmental pollution

problems have been local and minor because of the Earth's own ability to absorb and purify minor quantities of pollutants.
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Introduction :
The industrialization of society, the

introduction of motorized vehicles & the explosion of the population, are factors contributing to the growing environmental pollution prob. to clean up the air.

At this time it is urgent that we find methods

When human beings aggregate in large

numbers, there is tendency to degrade the environmental.

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Introduction
Burning Carbon/fossil fuels, indiscriminate

disposal of human excreta, solid and liquid wastes create conditions which adversely affect people.
Human activities affect air quality and

environmental processes

According to the EPA, Americans release 147

million tons of air pollution (not counting CO2 or wind blown soil) each year

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Introduction
There is increasing evidence of:
Depletion of ozone layer

Global warming
Seasonal changes Climatic changes including drought, tropical

storm and erratic rainfall.

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Introduction II

1.

Environment can be degraded through:

Degradable waste- soil and water pollution by organic solid wastes, pollution of air by products of combustion, thermal and noise pollution. Persistent Waste- heavy metals, (lead, cadmium) certain man made chemicals (CFCs), compounds (DDT), plastics and nuclear wastes.
Reversible biological and geographical impacts- tar in road construction, volcanic eruptions.
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2.

3.

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Effects of Environmental pollution

Costly treatment of water supplies

Costly reclamation of the natural environment

Rehabilitation of materials defaced by pollution e.g. building Increased medical bills Loss of work time due to illness.
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Air Pollution
Composition of atmospheric air

Sources of Air pollution

Outdoor Air pollution

The seven criteria pollutants

Control of outdoor Air pollution Indoor Air pollution General effects of Air pollution
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Definition
Air pollution refers to the presence in the atmosphere of one or more contaminants or combinations there

of in such quantities and for such duration as to be injurious to biological life or property or which unreasonably interferes with comfort of life
Air pollution refers to contamination of the air by noxious gases and minute particles of solid and liquid matter (particulates) in concentrations that endanger human health or produce other measured effects on living matter and other materials

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Introduction to air pollution II

Reduced visibility due to smoke & dust may

lead to accidents, reduce amount of solar energy reaching the earth.

In the worst affected 20 countries including

Uganda, approximately 5% or more of the total burden of disease is caused by IAP.

In 11 countries, IAP is responsible for 1.2

million deaths a year.

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Composition of Atmospheric Air

Substance Volume (%) 78.084 0.004 20.946 0.002 0.9340 0.001 0.0330 0.001 Concentration (ppm) 780,900 290,400 9,300 315 1.2 0.5 0.01- 0.04
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Nitrogen Oxygen Argon Carbon dioxide Methane Hydrogen Ozone

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Sources of Air Pollution

The sources can be natural or man made Natural Sources Volcanic eruptions Forest fires Dust storms

Decay of organic matter (methane)

Plants volatile hydrocarbons
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Sources of Air Pollution II

Man Made Sources 1. Transportation industries 2. Fugitive emissions- particulates, smoke, gases and vapors through chimneys. 3. Burning of solid or fossil fuels (domestic & indus) 4. Burning of liquid and gaseous fuels (Petroleum ). 5. Industrial processes- steel mills, metal smelters etc.-SO2 6. Use of pesticides (insecticides-DDT, pesticides) 7. Poor solid waste management- smoke, odors, gases.
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Air pollution in developing countries:

Air quality in the developing world has been getting much worse especially in the mega cities of rapidly industrializing countries (air pollution exceeds WHO standards by large margins) In Lahore, Pakistan & China, for instance air borne dust, smoke & dirt are

often ten times higher than levels considered safe for human health.

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 The main source of air pollution in the city of Nairobi is vehicle emissions. Statistics from the Central

Air pollution in Kenya:

Bureau of Statistics (CBS, 2000) show that in the years 1992 and 1999, 385636 and 585624 motor vehicles were imported respectively.
Most of these cars have been used for a number of years in their countries of origin, mainly Japan, before resale to local buyers.
They are known to emit far higher air pollutants than new and properly maintained vehicles.
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Public Health significance:

According to The world health report 2002

indoor air pollution is responsible for 2.7% of the global burden of disease.
Health Organization (WHO) points out that

outdoor air pollution contributes up to 1.4 % of the burden of disease in developing regions, and other sources of pollution, such as lead in water, air, and soil, may contribute 0.9 %,( WHO 2002).
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Significance contd
This burden of disease occurs primarily in developing countries with China and India contributing the most to

the global burden. High levels of air pollutants are known to cause respiratory diseases.
A WHO report in 2006 said 32.8 million people in China had COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary

disease, an umbrella term used to describe lung diseases such as bronchitis. Out of a total population, 39 million also had asthma.
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Significance contd
Major pollutants emitted by combustion have

all been associated with increased respiratory and cardiovascular morbidity and mortality (Brunekreef and Holgate 2002).

The most famous disease outbreak of this type

occurred in London in 1952 (U.K. Ministry of Health 1954), when 4,000 people died prematurely in a single week because of severe air pollution, followed by another 8,000 deaths during the next few months (Bell and Davis 2001).
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Hospitalisation and economic impact:

Pollution effects can result in increased

medication use, increased doctor or emergency room visits, more hospital admissions and premature death.

Working days lost for sick adults, and

maternal working days lost in the case of a childs illness.

Destruction of properties and materials.

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Health effects of pollution:

Air pollution can affect our health in many

ways with both short-term and long-term effects.

Different groups of individuals are affected by

air pollution in different ways. pollutants than are others.

Some individuals are much more sensitive to Young children and elderly people often
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suffer more from the effects of air pollution.

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Health effects of pollution

People with health problems such as asthma,

heart and lung disease may also suffer more when the air is polluted.

The extent to which an individual is harmed

by air pollution usually depends on the total exposure to the damaging chemicals, i.e., the duration of exposure
be taken into account.

and the concentration of the chemicals must

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Acute or short-term effects

Examples of

short-term effects include irritation to the eyes, nose and throat, and upper respiratory infections such as bronchitis and pneumonia. Other symptoms can include headaches, nausea, and allergic reactions. medical conditions of individuals with asthma and emphysema. In the great "Smog Disaster" in London in 1952, four thousand people died in a few days due to the high concentrations of pollution.
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Short-term air pollution can aggravate the

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Long term health effects:

Long-term health effects can include chronic respiratory diseases, lung cancer, heart disease, and

even damage to the brain, nerves, liver, or kidneys.

Continual exposure to air pollution affects the lungs of growing children and may aggravate or complicate medical conditions in the elderly. Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the

type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, the individual's health status and genetics.[
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Individual effects
Respiratory effects
Decrease in breathing ability and increase in chest pains Inflammation of the lungs and damage to respiratory cells Permanent lung damage and reduced quality of life due to

ozone. Increased number of asthma attacks due to nitrogen dioxide.

Cardiovascular effects; A lack of oxygen in the bloodstream in those with heart disease due to CO.

Increased risk of cancer

Increased susceptibility to infection among children
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Out door air pollution

Sources of out door air pollution Effects of out door air pollution The seven criteria pollutants

Preventive and control measures

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Outdoor Air Pollution

It is from many sources, both stationery and

mobile.
Main sources- transportation, fuel

combustion, industrial processes, solid waste, bush & forest fire.

Contribute to green house effects due to

chlorofluorocarbons (CFC).
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Outdoor Air Pollution

Result in acidic depositions from N2 & S2 in

the air. Particulates (soot, metallic oxides) Gases (CO, N2, Hydrocarbons) Sunlight changes the gases to photochemical oxidants. Ozone is the most common in urban areas. CFCs reduces ozone, damages forest and plants.
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The seven criteria pollutants:

Standards of Air pollution are often quantified

basing on the seven criteria pollutants.

Quantities of these pollutants in the air can

give us a good picture of how much the ambient environment is polluted.

We use these criteria pollutants to monitor air

pollution.
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The seven criteria pollutants:

1.

Particulate matter

2. Sulphur compounds 3. Carbon monoxide 4. Nitrogen dioxide 5. Photochemical smog 6. Volatile organic carbons 7. Carbon dioxide
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Particulate matter:
It includes solids, liquid droplets and living organisms It may also be ash, dust, smoke or fumes The are often the result of emissions in material handling They may be in two forms; fugitive emissions and point source emissions
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Particulate matter contd

They may also be composed of selected compounds e.g. sulphur, nitrogen. Effects: Respiratory irritation

Deposition of grime on the walls, materials

Reduction of solar radiation Obscurity of visibility

Corrosion of metals
Silicosis and asbestosis Development of lung cancer.
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Sulphur compounds:
Natural sources include;
geological emissions,

volcanic eruptions,
geothermal energy, biological decay of organic matter

Man made sources:

Combustion of fossil fuels, metal ores that produce sulphur dioxide during

refining, manufacture of sulphur dioxide They are a major source of acid rain
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Effects of sulphur compounds:

It irritates the respiratory tract Responsible for acid rain

Corrosion of metals The process also produces hydrogen sulphide

that is harmful to textiles, impairs visibility.

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Carbon monoxide:
It is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas

The most toxic and greatest quantity pollutant

Natural sources; Decay, oxidation of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere and animal life. Man made sources; Transport sector, Stationery

sources Effects; Carboxyhaemoglobin(COHb), fatigue, insomnia, headache, dizziness etc

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Nitrogen dioxide & other Nitrogen compounds

Source: include lightening, decay of organic compounds, combustion, fertilisers, explosives & nitric acid. Effects: It Triggers a chain of chemical reactions to from ozone, causes lung irritation, respiratory ailments and stunted growth.
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Photochemical smog
Smog is a type of large-scale outdoor pollution.

It is caused by chemical reactions between pollutants derived from different sources, primarily automobile exhaust and industrial emissions. Cities/big Towns are often centers of these types of activities, and many suffer from the effects of smog.
Secondary air pollutant due to chemical reactions (Ozone & PAN-peroxyl acetyl-nitrate).

O2 + NO2 + HCs + Sunlight =

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Photochemical smog
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Photochemical smog
The necessary conditions: 1. Many automobiles in a limited space 2. Sun-shine (ultraviolet light) 3. The necessary conditions for accumulation which include
Mountains that prevent dispersion of pollutants 2. Atmospheric inversions 3. Lack of rain, pollutants not washed from the air 4. Coastal locations, with wind altering in each direction
1.
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Effects of smog
Effects: Ozone causes coughing, chocking &

reduced lung capacity.

Heart patients, asthmatics those with

bronchitis and emphysema are at risk.

Ozone cracks rubber, deteriorates fabrics and

fades paints.
PAN causes eye irritation.
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London smog:
On the week beginning the 5th December 1952

thousands of Londoners died in the worst air pollution disaster on record. Nobody realized what was happening until it was noticed that the undertakers were running out of coffins and the florists out of flowers.

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London smog
People with bronchitis and other respiratory conditions such as asthma wheezed to their deaths in their beds. Most deaths were a result of respiratory and cardiac distress. Many victims died in their beds from

asphyxiation because of the smog.

Since that time the adverse health effects of smog have been identified, including: - An increased number of deaths - Increased hospital admissions and sick days
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SMOG IN Cairo

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SMOG:

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Volatile organic carbons and Carbon dioxide:

Sources; Transportation industry, methane in

solid waste disposal sites

Carbon dioxide is a major agent of global

warming
Source: Combustion of wood fuels, candles,

hurricane lamps etc.

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Control/prevention of outdoor air pollution:

Prevention Alter the processes that produce the pollutants. Substituting non-pollutant fuels for pollutants. Use of emission control and monitoring devices. Control measures include; Atmospheric dilution- depends on dilution capacity of local atmosphere.

-spreads risks over a large area. - applicable if the amount of pollution, number of sources and policy permits ie licencing
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Control of outdoor pollution

Substitution: with materials or methods that do not

produce or limit production of pollutant. - e.g. substituting for lead in gasoline.

Reduction in quantity produced: improve

combustion efficiency, exhaust and emission for vehicles, electric motors instead of gasoline engines. Air cleaning technology: filters, electrostatic precipitators, scrubbers, adsorbers etc.
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Acid air pollution:

Acid rain is another consequence of outdoor air pollution .

When a pollutant, such as oxides of sulfur or nitrogen combines with droplets of water in the air, the water (or snow) can become acidified. Acid rain is rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic.
It has harmful effects on plants, aquatic animals, and

infrastructure.

Acid rain is mostly caused by human emissions of sulfur and nitrogen compounds which react in the atmosphere to produce acids.
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Effect of Acid rain:

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Principles in Pollution Control

Polluter Pays Principle

Precautionary principle
Duty of care principle Proximity principle Proactionary principle

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Polluter- Pays- Principle

The costs of pollution prevention, control and reduction measures are borne by the polluter. Is an economic instrument that is aimed at affecting behavior, by encouraging and inducing behavior that

puts less strain on the environment.

E.g. financial charges for industrial waste-water

discharge and special taxes on pesticides.

The difficulty in implementing is due to its social and
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economic implications (3).

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Precautionary Principle
Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage , lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation. Therefore precaution is seen:
As duty to avoid risk; As a requirement to adopt an approach which

ensures that errors are made on the side of excess environmental protection rather than on the side of estimated assimilative capacity of the environment;

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Precautionary Principle
As a duty to substitute more dangerous with less

dangerous substances;
As a shift of the burden of proof to those creating

risks;
As a concept requiring states to cooperate in order

to prevent environmental degradation in the light of scientific uncertainty; or

As a variety of approaches that may be undertaken
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in response to scientific uncertainty.

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Duty of Care Principle

Is a moral and legal concept that encapsulates the ethical principle of non- maleficence i.e. duty to do no

harm.
Describes the civic responsibility of each and every

individual to take all reasonable and practical steps in undertaking their activities to prevent harm to another person or property of another.
Legally the individual is considered responsible and accountable.
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Proximity Principle
Waste is handled and disposed in the proximity of the area on which it was produced, establishing a

responsible and sustainable approach towards waste generation, therefore limiting its transport.
This ensures that waste is recovered or disposed off without using methods or processes that might endanger health or the natural environment, establishing a self- sufficient integrated network of waste disposal installation in order to obtain a suitable removal in accordance with the proximity principle.
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Proactionary Principle
Advocates assessing risks and opportunities according to available science, not popular

perception;
Accounting for both the costs of the restrictions

themselves, and those of opportunities foregone;

Favoring measures that proportionate to the

probability and magnitude of impacts, and that have high expectation value.
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References
1. 2.

3. 4. 5.

6.

Bruce N, Padilla RP, Albalak R. Indoor Air pollution in developing countries: a major environmental and public health challenge. Bulletin of the WHO 2000; 78 (9). Warford JJ. Environment, health and sustainable development: The role of economic instruments and policies. Discussion paper for the Director Generals Council on the Earth Summit Action Programme for Health and environment, WHO Geneva, 1994. Enderlein RE. Protecting Europes water resources: Policy issues. Wat. Sci. Tech., 1995;31(8): 1-8. Principle 15 of Rio Declaration. Greiner R, Patterson L and Miller O. Explaining the concept of Environmental duty of Care in the context of the Northern Gulf region (Queensland). River consulting, 68 Wellington Street, Townsville QLD 4812. Precaution vs Proactionary. The invader: Vol 1 No: 2.

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