EARTHQUAKES AND EARTHQUAKE-RESISTANT DESIGN OF STRUCTURES

by

Dr. R.S. Jangid Associate Professor Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay Powai, Mumbai 400 076 (India).

SCOPE OF PRESENTATION
EARTHQUAKE AND ITS CHARACTERIZATION EARTHQUAKE-RESISTANT DESIGN REPAIR & RETROFITTING OF
STRUCTURES

EARTHQUAKE ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES ADVANCED TECHNOLOGIES

EARTHQUAKE
An earthquake may be simply described as a sudden shaking phenomenon of the earth's surface due to disturbance inside the earth.

CLASSIFICATIONS AND CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKE

Tectonic Earthquakes Non-tectonic Earthquakes

TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES
Due to disturbances or adjustments of geological formations taking place in the earth's interior. Due to slip along geological faults.
Less frequent. More intensive. More destructive in nature.

ELASTIC REBOUND THEORY

NON-TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES
Due to external or surfacial causes such as: Volcanic eruptions Huge waterfalls Occurrence of sudden and major landslides Man-made explosions Impounding in dams and reservoirs Collapse of caves, tunnels etc. Very frequent, minor in intensity generally not destructive in nature.

EARTHQUAKE TERMINOLOGY Seismograms Focus or Hypocentre Epicentre Focal Depth Hypocentral Distance Epicentral Distance Isoseismal Coseismal

EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENON

EARTHQUAKE WAVES
P Waves:
Primary waves, Longitudinal waves, etc. Speed 8 to 13 km/s

S Waves:
Shear waves, Transverse waves, etc. Speed 5 to 7 km/s

L Waves:
Long waves or Surface waves, etc. Speed 5 to 7 km/s

INTENSITY OF EARTHQUAKE
Degree of destruction caused by it Severity of the shaking of ground
MEASUREMENT OF EARTHQUAKE

Magnitude Intensity - (MMI Scale) I to XII

MAGNITUDE OF EARTHQUAKE
Related to the amount of energy released by the geological rupture. Measure of the absolute size of the earthquake, without reference to distance from the epicentre. Richter (1958) defined magnitude as the logarithm to the base 10 of the largest displacement of a standard seismograph situated 100 km from the focus. Largest magnitude of earthquake recorded = 8.9

Log10E = 4.8 + 1.5M

(E = Energy in joules; M = Magnitude)

Energy Magnitude Relationship

1E20 1E19 1E18

Energy Released (J)

1E17 1E16 1E15 1E14 1E13 1E12 1E11 1E10 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Magnitude

Energy release increases by 32 times with increase of 1 magnitude

INTENSITY OF EARTHQUAKE
Measure of the observed damage at a particular location Vary with distance from the epicentre and will depend on local ground conditions Measured on the scale of intensity which is Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI). MMI is measured on Roman I to XII scale.

TABLE 1.1: MODIFIED MERCALLI INTENSITY SCALE (ABRIDGED). I II III Not felt except by a very few under specially favourable circumstances Felt only by a few persons at rest, specially on upper floors of buildings; and delicately suspended objects may swing. Felt quite noticeably indoors, specially on upper floors of buildings but many people do not recognise it as an earthquake; standing motor cars may rock slightly; and vibrations may be felt like the passing of a truck. IV During the day felt indoors by many, outdoors by a few, at night some awakened; dishes, windows, doors disturbed; walls make creaking sound, sensation like heavy truck striking the building; and standing motor cars rock noticeably. V Felt by nearly everyone; many awakened; some dishes, windows, etc, broken; a few instances of cracked plaster; unstable objects overturned; disturbance of trees, poles and other tall objects noticed sometimes; and pendulum clocks may stop. VI VII Felt by all, many frightened and run outdoors; some heavy furniture moved; a few instances of fallen plaster or damaged chimneys; and damage slight. Everybody runs outdoors, damage negligible in buildings of good design and construction; slight to moderate in well built ordinary structures; and some chimneys broken, noticed by persons driving motor cars.

VIII

IX

XI

XII

Damage slight in specially designed structures; considerable in ordinary but substantial buildings with partial collapse; very heavy in poorly built structures; panel walls thrown out of framed structures; falling of a chimney, factory stacks, columns, monuments, and walls; heavy furniture overturned, sand and mud eject in small amounts; changes in well water; and disturbs persons driving motor cars Damage considerable in specially designed structures; well designed framed structures thrown out of plumb; very heavy in substantial buildings with partial collapse; building shifted off foundations; ground cracked conspicuously; and underground pipes broken. Some well built wooden structures destroyed; most masonry and framed structures with foundations destroyed; ground badly cracked; rails bent; landslides considerable from river banks and steep slopes; shifted sand and mud; and water splashed over banks. Few, if any, masonry structures remain standing; bridges destroyed; broad fissures in ground, underground pipelines completely out of service; earth slumps and landslips in soft ground; and rails bent greatly. Total damage; waves seen on ground surfaces; lines of sight and levels distorted; and objects thrown upward into the air.

Earthquake/Inertia Forces

ACCELERATION

DECELERATION

EARTHQUAKE FORCE
Force due to earthquake is

W F = a = W ( Seismic Coefficient ) g
W = weight of structure; g = acceleration due to gravity; a = peak earthquake acceleration.
IS:1893-1984 provides the general principles and design criteria for earthquake loads.

Displacement (cm) Acceleration (g) Velocity (cm/sec)

EL-CENTRO, 1940 EARTHQUAKE

0.4 0.2 0.0 -0.2 -0.4 40 20 0 -20 -40 10 0 -10 -20 -30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Time (sec)

(Before Earthquake)

(After Earthquake)

House Elements Resist Horizontal Forces

Roof Diaphragm f1 f2 f3 Floor Diaphragm Foundation Cripple Wall Shear Wall fsum = f1 + f2 + f3

Damage Resulting from Base Shear

PREDICTION OF EARTHQUAKES Cannot be predicted so far. Short time warning after arrival of P-waves. Fore Shocks (minor tremors before major quake) Peculiar behaviour of Snakes, Rats etc.

BEFORE AN EARTHQUAKE
1. Store heavy objects near ground or floor. 2. Secure tall objects, like bookcases to the wall. 3. Secure gas appliances to prevent broken gas lines and fires. 4. Learn where your exits, evacuation route, and meeting places are. Know the safe spot in each room. 5. Keep emergency items , such as a flashlight, first aid kit and spare clothes, food in your car or office.

DURING AN EARTHQUAKE
1. If indoors, stay in the building. 2. Take shelter under solid furniture, i.e. tables or desks, until the shaking stops. 3. Keep away from overhead fixtures, windows, cabinets and bookcases or other heavy objects that could fall. Watch for falling plaster or ceiling tiles. 4. If driving- STOP, but stay in the vehicle. Do not stop on bridge, under trees, light posts, electrical power lines or signals. 5. If outside, stay outside. Move to an open area away from buildings, trees, power lines and roadways.

AFTER AN EARTHQUAKE
1. Check for injuries. Give first aid as necessary. 2. Check for safety hazards: fire, electrical, gas leaks, etc. and take appropriate actions. 3. Do not use telephones and roadways unless necessary so that these are open for emergency uses. 4. Be prepared for aftershocks, plan for cover when they occur. 5. Turn on your radio/TV for an emergency message. Evacuate to shelters as instructed. 6. Remain calm, try to reassure others. Avoid injury from broken glasses etc.

2001 GUJARAT EARTHQUAKE

Houses Collapsed = 2, 33, 660 Partially Collapsed=9, 71, 538 Damage to R.C.C. Structures in Ahmedabad (700 Killed). Total Casualties = 13,811 Injuries = 1,66,836 (20,217 seriously). Magnitude = 6.9~7.9

An aerial view of the destruction of houses in Bhachau and Anjar towns during the Gujarat, 2001 earthquak

Devastated village - Jawaharnagar which was relocated at this site after the Anjar earthquake of 1856. The same has collapsed as no aseismic design interventions were made during the rehabilitation and reconstruction of this village.

1993 LATUR EARTHQUAKE

The earthquake struck at 3.56 Hrs. on 30-9-1993 with epicentre at Killari Dist. Latur. The intensity of earthquake was 6.4 on the Richter Scale. 3,670 people died in Latur District. 446 were seriously injured making them handicapped. 37 Villages were totally collapsed. 728 villages suffered damages of varying degree. Nearly 1,27,000 familites were affected.

Post Office Building, Killari

Damaged but not collapsed

Public Building in Sastoor

Damaged but not collapsed

MEERP Programme
Before MEERP

After MEERP

1985 MEXICO EARTHQUAKE: RAILROAD SYSTEM

1985 MEXICO EARTHQUAKE: POUNDING

EARTHQUAKE-RESISTANT DESIGN OF NON-ENGINEERED BUILDING

Symmetric Plan Less Opening

Interlocking of Stones

Interlocking by Through Stones (Haider)

Through Stones in Existing Walls

Seismic Bands (Very Important)

Construction Practice
(Marathwada Region)

Construction Practice
(Satara, Kolhapur Region)

Strengthening of Existing Houses

Confidence in Earthquake-resistant Measures

Confidence Building in Retrofitting

EARTHQUAKE-RESISTANT DESIGN OF ENGINEERED BUILDINGS

Collapse of open ground story RC frame residentia

2001 Gujarat Earthquake

2001 Gujarat Earthquake

Buildings with First-Soft Story

Buildings with Heavy Water Tanks

EARTHQUAKE ANALYSIS
SDOF system
m x

g x

EQUATION OF MOTION
Free Body Diagram
cx
kx
+ g ) m ( x x

Governing Equation

+ cx + kx = m g m x x
m = mass of the SDOF system c = damping constant k = stiffness x = displacement of the system g = earthquake acceleration. x

MDOF System
mN kN xN ki +1 ( xi xi +1 ) i x i +1 ) ci +1 ( x
i + g ) mi ( x x

mi ki ( xi xi 1 ) i x i 1 ) ci ( x (b) Free body diagram

m2 k2 m1

x2

x1

k1
g x

(a) MDOF system

Figure 2.4

DESIGN CRITERIA FOR EARTHQUAKE LOADS (IS-1893-1984)

Country is divided into five zones for the purpose of design of structures for earthquake loads

SEISMIC ZONING
SEISMIC ZONE I II III IV V MMI V VI VII VIII IX & above 0 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.05 0.08 F0 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.25 0.40

0 = Basic horizontal seismic coefficient F0 = Seismic zone factor

Distribution of earthquake forces in multi-story building

DUCTILE DETAILING OF R.C.C. STRUCTURRES (IS:13920-1993)

To Add Ductility and Toughness (Special confining reinforcement) Should be applied for all R.C.C. Structures Seismic Zone IV and V Seismic Zone III but I >1 Seismic Zone III (Industrial Buildings) Seismic zone III (> 5 Storey) Flexural Memberes Stress > 0.1 fck b/D > 0.3 b > 200 mm D > Clear Span/4

Condition assessment
Tapping by hammer Rebound Hammer Indentation method Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Transmission Test Covermeter / Pachometer Radiography Chloride Content Testing for Depth of Carbonation Tests on Concrete Cores

New stirrups New reinforcement Old reinforcement

Roughened surface Drilled hole in slab

Roughened surface

Slab

Stirrups Beam Jacket

Strengthening of column

New stirrups New reinforcement Old reinforcement

Anchor bars

Drilled hole in slab

New reinforcement New stirrups Old reinforcement

Strengthening of column

Roughened surface
New reinforcement

weld

Beam Strengthening

Strengthening of bare frame

Strengthening of masonry

FRP strengthening

CONVENTIONAL SESIMIC DESIGN Sufficient Strength to Sustain Moderate Earthquake Sufficient Ductility under Strong Earthquake
Disadvantages Inelastic Deformation Require Large InterStorey Drift Localised Damages to Structural Elements and Secondary Systems Strengthening Attracts more Earthquake Loads

BASE ISOLATION
Aseismic Design Philosophy Decouple the Superstructure from Ground with or without Flexible Mounting Period of the total System is Elongated A Damper Energy Dissipating Device provided at the Base Mountings. Rigid under Wind or Minor Earthquake

Advantages of Base Isolation

Reduced floor Acceleration and Inter-storey Drift Less (or no) Damage to Structural Members Better Protection of Secondary Systems Prediction of Response is more Reliable and Economical.

Non-isolated

Base-isolated

Fixed base building

Base-isolated building

SEISMIC BASE ISOLATION

mN kN
Acceleration

xN
Period shift

Increasing damping

m2 k2

x2

Displacement

m1 k1 mb Base isolator

x1

Increasing damping

x g
Period
Figure 3.2 Concept of base isolation.

BASE ISOLATION SYSTEMS

LRB System NZ System P-F System R-FBI System EDF System S-RF System Friction Pendulum System (FPS) High Damping Rubber Bearing

Elastomeric bearings

Sliding bearings

110 12 36 6 1.5 12
Steel Plate

30

Rubber

Response of five-story building isolated by LRB system

1.5 1.0 Top floor acceleration (g)

Fixed base Isolated

0.5

0.0

-0.5

-1.0

-1.5 10

5 xb (cm)

-5

-10

-15

10

15

20

Time (sec)

Response of a five-story isolated by FPS system

1.5 1.0 Top floor acceleration (g)

Fixed base Isolated

0.5

0.0

-0.5

-1.0

-1.5 10

5 xb (cm)

-5

-10

-15

10

15

20

Time (sec)

DAMAGE OF BRIDGES DURING EARTHQUAKES

DUCTILE DETAILING OF R.C.C. STRUCTURRES

(IS:13920-1993) To Add Ductility and Toughness Should be applied for all R.C.C. Structures Seismic Zone IV and V Seismic Zone III but I >1 Seismic Zone III (Industrial Buildings) Seismic zone III (> 5 Storey) Flexural Memberes Stress > 0.1 fck b/D > 0.3 b > 200 mm D > Clear Span/4

SEISMIC ISOLATION OF BRIDGES

1.0 Deck acceleration (g) Non-isolated 0.5 0.0 -0.5 -1.0 0.4 Pier base shear/W Non-isolated 0.2 0.0 -0.2 -0.4 Bearing displacement (cm)
W = Weight of bridge deck

Isolated

Isolated

10

Abutment

Pier

-10

10

15 Time (sec)

20

25

30

Figure 8.2 Time variation of bridge response in longitudinal direction to El-Centro, 1940 excitation.

The American River Bridge & installed friction pendulum bearing

Thjorsa Bridge with Elastomeric seismic isolation bearings (Ice land)

Location: 1 k.m. SW of Pelabuhan Building : 4-Storeyed MR RCC. Isolator : 16 HDR Manufacturer: MRPRA, UK

Figure 7.1 Demonstration building in Indonesia (1994)

Location: Rancho Cucamonga California. Isolator :HDR Engineers: Taylor & Gaines; Reid & Tarics. Year :1985
Figure 7.2 Foothill Communities Law and Justice Center, Rancho Cucamonga,California (photo by I.D. Aiken).

Location: Los Angeles, California. Isolator : LRB Engineers: KPFF Year :1991

Figure 7.3 University of Southern California, University Hospital (Photo by P.W. Clark).

Location: East Los Angeles California. Isolator :HDR Engineers: Fluor-Daniel Year :1990

Figure 7.4 Fire Command and Control facility, Los Angeles, California (Naeim and Kelly 1999).

Location: Sendai, Miyako Provience Isolator :HDR Year :1990

Figure 7.9 Tohoku Electric Power Company, Japan (Kelly, 1997).

SAN FRANCISCO CITY HALL

Tuned mass damper, Huis Ten Bosch tower, Nagasaki

Damper Connected Buildings

m1,n c1,n k1,n m1,n-1 c1,n-1 k1,n-1 m1,i c1,i k1,i m1,3 c1,3 k1,3 m1,2 c1,2 k1,2 m1,1 c1,1 k1,1 kd cd kd cd kd cd kd cd m2,m c2,m k2,m m2,3 c2,3 m2,2 c2,2 m2,1 c2,1 k2,1 k2,2 k2,3

Building A

g x

Building B

CONCLUDING REMARKS
Earthquakes are not predictable Construct Earthquake-Resistant Structures It is possible to evaluate the earthquake forces acting on the structure. Design the structure to resist the above loads for safety against Earthquakes.
Base isolation can also be used for

retrofitting of structure.