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All notes taken from BBC Bitesize website which you can download directly from the BBC website.
Ranchers had over-grazed the plains. Overstocking had also led to a fall in prices. In spring 1886 there was a drought, followed by a scorching hot summer (up to 43C). This was followed by a winter storm in January 1887, in which the temperature dropped to -43C. Half the cattle on the plains died in a single year. More and more homesteaders were coming onto the plains, and fencing off their farms with barbed wire (patented in 1874).
Practice Question - 'The railroads were the critical factor in the development of cattle ranching. Discuss
List all the ways the railroads affected the development of cattle ranching. Think about the arguments and facts you would use to describe: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Why cattle ranching developed in Texas? How and why cattle ranching spread from Texas further into the Great Plains? Who the cattle pioneers were? Why cattle trails and 'cow towns' were set up in the 1860s? How cattle ranching was affected by the railroads? Why the 'open range' had come to an end by the 1890s?
Suggested answers
The railroads affect the development of cattle ranching
In 1865-1870 beef was transported north on the railroad from Sedalia, causing the opening up of Chicago and the other northern markets. The long drives were developed solely to get the cattle to the railroads. The development of 'cow-towns' such as Abilene were to allow the safe loading of cattle onto the railroads. In 1870-1885, refrigeration cars on trains opened a world-wide market for beef. After 1885 many homesteaders, who eventually destroyed ranching, were brought to the West on the railroads.
BBC Bitesize Notes
These factors, together with a huge and growing market for beef in the north, meant that ranching became a good way to make a living. For ranching to work, several things had to be in place. The railroads were a critical factor in the development of cattle ranching - without them the cattle would not have reached the marketplace. The long drives (which took the cattle to the railroads), cow-towns and stockyards (where the cattle were loaded onto the trains) were also all vital in getting the product to market.
Cowboys
The cowboys were another essential ingredient - without their skills nothing, particularly the long drives, would have been possible.
Engraving by GH Delorme, 1892, showing Abilene cattle trail from Texas, on the way to markets in the north
BBC Bitesize Notes
Charles Goodnight
Charles Goodnight had a huge effect on the history of cattle ranching: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. He was one of the original Texas ranchers, starting as a rancher in 1856. He was the first to recognise and exploit the huge and growing market for beef in the mining towns of Wyoming. He pioneered the 'long drive' (the Goodnight-Loving Trail). He helped to develop the cowboys' skills on the long drives. Range rights: Goodnight is reputed to have invented the technique he called the crazy quilt. By crossing the Texas Longhorn with British Herefords, Goodnight was able to breed heavier cattle, which were still tough enough to survive on the plains. He made a truce with a famous local rustler, 'Dutch Henry', then helped to form the Panhandle Stock Association, which drove out rustlers (especially Billy the Kid, who was killed in 1881). James Brisbin's book about Goodnight - 'How to Get Rich on the Plains' encouraged many other people to take up cattle ranching.
BBC Bitesize Notes
8.
Revision preparation Identify eight factors that helped cattle ranching develop on the plains.
Think about the arguments and facts you would use to explain:
1. 2. 3. Why cattle ranching developed in Texas. How cattle ranching was affected by the railroads. Whether the railroads or Charles Goodnight had the greater impact on the development of cattle ranching.
Suggested answers
Eight factors that helped cattle ranching develop include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. three essential natural products for the task a growing market 'long drives' and 'cow-towns' cowboys range rights skilful cattle breeding the defeat of rustlers Charles Goodnight
BBC Bitesize Notes
Life as a cowboy
The life of a cowboy followed the seasons: In winter they hung round the ranch, or lived in 'line camps', taking daily rides to stop the cattle 'drifting' onto the open plain. In spring, they went 'bog-riding' to haul out 'mired' cows, and then went on the 'round-up'. In summer, they went on the trail drives to market.
BBC Bitesize Notes
Cowboys' lives were similar in many ways to the lives of Native Americans:
They were entirely dependent on the natural products of the Great Plains. They moved around (though the cowboys were herding cattle, whereas the Native Americans were following the buffalo). They cared for the cattle (eg by bog-riding and from line-camps) in a way similar to the way Native American dog-soldiers cared for the buffalo. Their food and clothing was derived from cattle (beef and leather). The round-up was a collective, community event similar in many ways to a buffalo hunt. Cowboys developed a system of long-range signals, such as waving a hat, in much the same way as the Native Americans used smoke signals.
BBC Bitesize Notes
7.
8.
2.
Factors continued ..
3. Manifest destiny The idea grew up that white Americans were superior, and that it was America's manifest destiny (obvious fate) to expand and encourage 'the American way of life' on the Great Plains. The writer Horace Greeley, who popularised this idea, advised Americans: 'Go West, young man'. Tall tales Once the population of an area reached 60,000, it could apply to become a state of the USA. Local governments therefore encouraged publicity campaigns which claimed (for example) that farmers in the west could grow pumpkins as big as barns and maize as tall as telegraph poles. Many people moved west thinking they would make a fortune
4.
Revision preparation Make spidergrams to show the four reasons people did not settle on the Plains before 1865, four kinds of person who went to live on the Plains after 1865 and four factors encouraging people onto the Plains
As part of your revision, think about the arguments and facts you would use to explain:
1. Why people settled and stayed in the West. 2. Why people moved west to become homesteaders in the late 1860s and 1870s. 3. Which of the following was the most important factor in opening up the West: the railroad and the railroad companies, federal and state government actions, the belief in 'manifest destiny' and the hopes and aspirations of the settlers, the Homestead Act of 1862.
BBC Bitesize Notes
Homesteaders' problems
Life was very tough for early settlers and homesteaders on the Great Plains - how did they cope with the harsh conditions?
Building a house
There was little wood to build log cabins. Settlers built 'sod houses', while they lived out of doors people did their cooking on an open fire.
Housework
There was no wood for fuel, and no shops to buy items such as candles and soap. A typical household had only two buckets, some crockery and one cracked cup. There was no water and little food.
A travelling shoe-maker or tinker might pass through who would provide or mend household items, but usually families just had to make do. The women collected 'buffalo chips' for fuel, stoked the stove, and made their own candles and soap. 'I have often wondered how my mother stood it', wrote an early settler.
Isolation
No doctors or midwives. No social life 'because of the distances between farmhouses'. In the winter families were shut in 'and longed for spring'. People had to make the most of any trip to their nearest town, where the women talked of the harvest and the men smoked corncob pipes and talked politics.
Law courts and sheriffs such as Wyatt Earp slowly established law and order.
Answer preparation As part of your revision, think about the arguments and facts you would use to explain:
1. What life was like for the early homesteaders? 2. What problems faced the homesteaders, and how they overcame them? 3. What life was like for women in the early homesteads?
BBC Bitesize Notes
Farming
A hard crust on the soil made it hard to start farming. Farmers could not afford a plough or machines. There were not enough workers. Teams of 'sodbusters' using steel ploughs did the first ploughing.
After 1880, thresher teams travelled around following the harvest. Farmers could hire them for just a few days.
Drought
There was only 38cm of rainfall in a year, and the hot summers evaporated dampness from the land. In the 1860s there were terrible droughts, followed by fires.
The well driller and windpump allowed deep wells to be dug, which gave water. New methods of dry farming were invented (the 'Turkey Red' variety of wheat was imported from Russia, and farmers put a layer of dust on the soil after rain,
which stopped evaporation).
Food
Farmers could not grow enough on their farms to feed a family.
The government realised that 160 acres was not enough to sustain people. The Timber Culture Act of 1873 gave farmers another 160 free acres if they grew some trees.
Fences
Lack of wood for fencing meant farmers could not keep cattle off their crops. This led to trouble with the cattlemen. Barbed wire (patented by Joseph Glidden in 1874) solved the problem of fencing.
Insect pests
In the 1870s, grasshopper plagues stripped the cornstalks naked as beanpoles' and sent pregnant women insane. Colorado beetle destroyed potato crops. Settlers tried to harvest the crops before the grasshoppers came. They tried to kill them, but gave up, 'weary and dispirited'.
The government raised relief funds. Modern insecticides solved this problem.
Answer preparation Think about the arguments and facts you would use to explain:
1. Why farmers were able to settle on the Great Plains. 2. How homesteaders reacted to the many problems facing them on the Plains. 3. What life was like for the first farmers on the Plains. 4. How important the Timber Culture Act of 1873 was, in helping homesteaders to settle on the Plains.
BBC Bitesize Notes
Suggested answers
farmers struggling to use hoes and pick axes (problem 1: farming on hard soil) sun and sparse vegetation (problem 2: drought) no trees (problem 3: food) few fences (problem 4: fences) Colorado beetle (problem 5: insect pests) grasshoppers (problem 5: insect pests) Native Americans (problem 6: law and order) bandits (problemBBC 6:Bitesize lawNotes and order)
Things started to improve as more people arrived, and federal territories became fully fledged American states.
BBC Bitesize Notes
Federal territory
At first, newly-occupied land on the Plains was federal territory (it belonged to the US government) and was administered by a governor, three judges and a US marshal. When the area reached a population of 5,000, it became a territory, with - in addition - locally elected sheriffs, who could deal with local criminals. New territories were notoriously lawless.
BBC Bitesize Notes
Township of Tombstone, Arizona, in 1881 The gunfight at the OK Corral took place near here on 26 October 1881 Miners in the mining towns set up miners' courts, which settled local matters such as disputed claims, but were powerless to stop gangs of outlaws or rustlers. In many areas, local citizens set up vigilante groups, who dished out summary justice to people suspected of BBC Bitesize Notes crimes
When the population reached 60,000, the territory became a state, with its own laws, government and finances, although there was still a US marshal with responsibility for criminals who broke federal laws. Slowly, helped by improved communications (for instance the telegraph), law and order was established. Among the lawmen who helped achieve this were Pat Garrett (who shot Billy the Kid) and Wyatt Earp (famous for his shoot-out with the Clanton gang at the OK Corral).
BBC Bitesize Notes
Distance (difficult to cover the large areas and isolated communities of the West) Poverty and harsh conditions (people were prepared to resort to desperate measures) More men than women (no calming influence; prostitution) Different races (differences of language and culture led to there being little sense of a united community) Culture of violence (everyone carried guns, and sorted out problems by using violence) Land claims and gold (arguments over land ownership; greed, gamblers, criminals) Cattle barons (fear of reprisal; 'respectable' citizens were scared to speak out; juries could be bribed and were often biased) Poor court system (judges often had poor knowledge of law; courts often gave unfair verdicts; lack of convictions) Vigilantes (often as much a problem as the criminals)
BBC Bitesize Notes
Answer preparation As part of your revision, think about the arguments and facts you would use to explain:
1. What the structure of government was on the Plains. 2. Why law and order was a problem on the Great Plains. 3. What ways were used to try to solve the problems of law and order. 4. How successfully law and order was established on the Plains.
BBC Bitesize Notes
The cattlemen were charged with murder. They bribed the jury and the case was dropped. Nevertheless, the war marked the end of the power of the cattlemen.
BBC Bitesize Notes
Answer preparation As part of your revision, think about the arguments and facts you would use to explain:
1. Why cattlemen and homesteaders clashed on the Great Plains. 2. What the problems were that hindered the establishment of law and order on the Plains. 3. Who won the Johnson County War, and what the main events of that war were.
BBC Bitesize Notes
Main events in the struggle for the Plains 1803-1851: The Permanent Indian Frontier
Policy
In 1803, the US government purchased Louisiana from the French. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 forced all Native Americans in the eastern United States (eg Cherokee, Seminole) to go there (the Trail of Tears). First settler trails across Plains to the West - Oregon Trail (1841), Mormon Trail (1846), California Trail (to the goldfields, 1849). First skirmishes between Native and white Americans.
BBC Bitesize Notes
In the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851, the US government agreed that large areas of land should belong to Native American tribes 'for all time' (eg the Sioux were given the Black Hills of Dakota). Pressures on Native Gold was discovered in Colorado (1859). The first cattle drives were opened up (eg the Americans Goodnight-Loving Trail, 1866). The Pony Express and a regular stagecoach service to California started up. Indian wars of 1860-1867 Results Little Crow's war (1860-61) Massacre of Sand Creek by Chivington's 3rd Colorado Volunteers (1864) Red Cloud led the Sioux in a successful war against the US (1866-7). During this war the Fetterman massacre (1866) occurred, in which 80 US cavalry troopers died. Policy
BBC Bitesize Notes
In the Treaty of Medicine Lodge (1867) the southern plains tribes agreed to move to Oklahoma. In the Second Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868) Red Cloud realised he could never defeat the US permanently, and the Sioux agreed to move onto a small reservation. The US government promised to supply food and medicine. Pressures on Native Railroads. Cow towns and cattle ranching. Americans Gold was discovered in the Black Hills. Many white Americans wanted to exterminate the Native Americans. Slaughter of the buffalo. The US government broke its promises of 1868, and supplies were inadequate. Indian wars of 1875-85 Results Custer and his army were wiped out at the battle of Little Bighorn (1876). Custer's Avengers swelled the US Army, and superior US numbers, technology and winter campaigns forced the Sioux to surrender. BBC Bitesize Notes
Policy
Policy
The US government made Native American territory available to white settlers (eg the Oklahoma Land Run, 1889). Homesteaders arrived. The Native Americans' own law courts were abolished. The Native Americans had to seek justice in the white man's court. End of the Native American way of life.
BBC Bitesize Notes
Result
Answer preparation As part of your revision, think about the arguments and facts you would use to explain: 1. How the policy of the American government towards the Indians changed between 1803 and 1890. Why the policy of the American government towards the Indians changed so often between 1803 and 1890. What the consequences were of the changes in policy of the American government towards the Plains Indians. What the causes of the Plains wars were. What the consequences of the Plains wars were.
BBC Bitesize Notes
2.
3.
4. 5.
Bad behaviour
However, bad behaviour on both sides added to the confrontation. The US government regularly broke its treaty promises - as the Sioux Chief Gall said: 'If we make peace, you will not keep it'. Meanwhile, some Native Americans wanted war. Early travellers on the Plains were robbed and murdered. And when some Native Americans made peace with the US government, others would stay out on the warpath - white Americans could not understand that the chiefs had no power to make their warriors obey.
BBC Bitesize Notes
Negotiation to Extermination
In 1866, a group of Native Americans wiped out a unit of US cavalry (the Fetterman Massacre), and events like this, and the defeat at Little Bighorn (1876), made the white Americans determined to win the war.
White Americans demanded a settled, farming way of life. They thought that tipis were: '...too full of smoke ... inconceivably filthy'. Horace Greeley despised the Native Americans for: 'sittingaround the doors of their lodges at the height of the planting season', and said they were '...squalid and conceited, proud and worthless, lazy and lousy'. 'These people must die out,' he wrote, 'God has given this earth to those who will subdue and cultivate it.'
BBC Bitesize Notes
White Americans believed that God had given them the right to 'subdue the earth', and they wanted to make money from it. They thought land ownership, fences and cultivation were natural. White Americans thought only they could make full use of the land. They gave the Plains to the Native Americans when they thought they were 'wholly unfit for cultivation', but when they found this not to be true, they took the land for themselves.
BBC Bitesize Notes
Christian preachers thought '...the Indians have no religion, only ignorant superstition'. Native American customs of marriage, divorce and exposure of old people to the elements offended white Americans' religion and morality.
BBC Bitesize Notes
War
Preserve life, Ambush and stealth, Coups & Scalping
White soldiers saw ambush as treachery, scalping as barbarous and retreat as 'a total lack of courage'. 'The first impulse of the Indian,' wrote Colonel Dodge, '...is to scuttle away as fast as his legs will carry him ... there is one example of a fair stand-up fight.'
BBC Bitesize Notes
Answer preparation As part of your revision, think about the arguments and facts you would use to explain:
1. What attitudes different white Americans had towards Native Americans. 2. Why white Americans and Plains Indians came into conflict on the Plains. 3. Why white Americans and Plains Indians found it so difficult to reach a peaceful settlement of their differences.
The Battle
The Sioux had been joined by the Cheyenne and Arapaho, making an army of more than 3,000 warriors, armed with Winchester repeating rifles. Custer marched his men through (not round) the Wolf mountains, to arrive at the Sioux camp first. Custer divided his 600 men into three groups.
BBC Bitesize Notes
The Battle
Custer sent Captain Frederick Benteen scouting, and sent Major Marcus Reno to attack the Sioux village from the south. Custer headed north of the village with 215 men. The Sioux cut off both Reno and Custer. Benteen rescued Reno, but Custer and all of his troops lost their lives. The Sioux withdrew when Terry and Gibbon arrived.
BBC Bitesize Notes
Source analysis
This painting depicts the traditional view about the heroism of Custer and his men at the Battle of the Little Bighorn - Custer can be seen brandishing two guns, fighting until the very end. However, this painting illustrates the problem of reliability of sources. This depiction is almost certainly wrong. An archaeological survey in 1983 found that Custer's men fell in a running battle, perhaps as they scattered and fled down the hillside towards the river. It also found that Custer was not scalped, which suggests that he shot himself, because the Sioux did not scalp a suicide.
BBC Bitesize Notes
Answer preparation As part of your revision, think about the arguments and facts you would use to explain:
1. Why war broke out between the US government and the Sioux in 1876. 2. Why the Sioux won the Battle of the Little Big Horn.
November 1876
The US Army began winter campaigns against the Sioux, starving them into surrender. Colonel Mackenzie destroyed Dull Knife's Cheyenne camp - driving the Cheyenne into the hills to survive the winter without any food.
January 1877
Chief Sitting Bull fled to Canada. He joined a Wild West show, but eventually returned to join the reservation.
October 1877
Chief Joseph of the Nez Perc tribe tried to flee to Canada, but was intercepted. 'I will fight no more forever', he vowed.
1879
Richard Pratt opened the first boarding school for Native American children.
1881 (-1887)
Geronimo led a series of rebellions by the Apache warriors, but eventually had to surrender and become a vegetable farmer.
1883
The Bureau of Indian Affairs issued the Code of Religious Offences, banning Native American religious customs such as the Sun Dance.
1887
The Dawes Act divided the Native American reservations between the different families.
1889
The Oklahoma Land Run. The government split 2 million acres of former 'Indian territory' into 160 acre plots, and people had to race to claim a plot. The race began at noon on 22 April 1889 and by next day all the land was claimed.
1890
A medicine man called Wovoka started a Ghost Dance - although it was peaceful, the Army, fearing a rebellion, tried to arrest Sitting Bull, who was taking part (he was killed during the attempt). Then when Sioux Chief Big Foot, trying to avoid the trouble, led his people to Wounded Knee Creek, they were massacred by the US Army.
Answer preparation As part of your revision, think about the arguments and facts you would use to explain:
1. What the purpose and effect was of the reservations. 2. Why the Native Americans lost the battle for the Plains. 3. How important the Battle of the Little Big Horn was in the eventual defeat of the Plains Indians. 4. How successfully the so-called Indian problem was resolved.
BBC Bitesize Notes