survey

Survey research
Is a research method involving the use of questionnaires and/or statistical surveys to gather data about people and their thoughts and behaviours. This method was pioneered in the 1930s and 1940s by sociologist Paul Lazarsfeld. The initial use of the method was to examine the effects of the radio on political opinion formation of the United States.

 One of its early successes was the development of the theory of two-step flow of communication. The method was foundational for the inception of the Quantitative research tradition in sociology.

 A survey is a method of collecting information about a human population. In a survey, direct (or indirect) contact is made with the units of the study (e.g., individuals, organizations, communities) by using systematic methods of measurement such as questionnaires and interviews.

Identify the Purpose

To determine the purpose of a survey, two questions must be asked: (1) what information is wanted or needed, and (2) where can this information be found. A researcher may want to describe a population or program, plan a new program, or evaluate an existing one.

 Survey questions might address scientific issues (e.g., "What is the prevalence of cigarette smoking in the United States?"), social marketing issues(e.g., "How do adolescents respond to a new public service announcement?"), or broad public opinion (e.g., "Should schools teach sex education?").

 Information may be obtained from a specific group (e.g., high school students in a city or women of childbearing age in a state) or a broader group (e.g., adults in the United States). The population of interest (unit of study) can be identified in a country, state, city, or local area.

Develop the Questionnaire

. Once the purpose of the survey and population of interest are determined, a questionnaire must be developed. The questionnaire should be designed to provide the information being sought. It is important to determine which topics are essential, and previous questionnaires can be reviewed to identify questions that can be used for each topic. Reviewing previous questionnaires will also help determine the best format (e.g., multiple choice, openended) and question order.

 Questionnaires should start with easy questions rather than sensitive or hard to remember questions. If it is necessary to translate the questionnaire into multiple languages, the quality of the translation can be checked by having it "back-translated" into the original language.

Identify the Setting

Surveys are usually conducted in households, schools, health care facilities, or worksites. It is important to pick the location where the population of interest can be accessed most easily and where it can be most fully represented

Identify the Mode

Within each setting, data can be obtained in three ways: through personal interviews, through self-administrated questionnaires, or by reviewing records. Personal interviews are conducted by an interviewer who records the respondent's answers on a questionnaire or directly into a computer. Personal interviews are done in person or by telephone.

 Self-administered questionnaires can be "paper and pencil" or electronic in nature. Paper and pencil questionnaires are brought to the respondent by a data collector or mailed to the respondent. Electronic questionnaires use computer assisted self-interviewing technology. The questions are answered either on a lap top computer that is brought to the respondent or on a web site which the respondent can access. Record review is typically done on-site, but also can be done electronically if the records are stored on a web site or local area network.

 Selecting the appropriate combination of setting and mode is important and should be based on the survey topic and population of interest, as well as answers to the following questions: Which approach will produce the most valid and reliable data? For youth, sensitive topics are often best measured in a school setting using a paper and pencil self-administered questionnaire.

 Which approach will yield the highest response rate? Household surveys often produce the highest response rate for general population surveys. How much will the survey cost to conduct? Household surveys are generally the most expensive. How long will the survey take to complete? Telephone surveys, such as public opinion polls, often are the fastest.

Select the Sample.

The quality of the sample often determines the quality of the data. Samples of convenience or volunteer samples produce data representative only of persons who participate in the survey. Scientifically selected samples can be representative of a larger population and are used to generalize findings to persons beyond those who participate in the survey.

 To identify the appropriate sample for a survey, the survey topic, population of interest, setting, and mode must all be considered. Once this is done, the next step is to select an appropriate sampling frame from which to draw the sample. The sampling frame is a list of all the members of the population of interest. It should be as current and inclusive as possible. Existing databases may be available, or it may be necessary to construct a sampling frame.

 Simple Random Sampling: A simple random sample (SRS) of size n is produced by a scheme which ensures that each subgroup of the population of size n has an equal probability of being chosen as the sample. Stratified Random Sampling: Divide the population into "strata". There can be any number of these. Then choose a simple random sample from each stratum. Combine those into the overall sample. That is a stratified random sample. (Example: Church A has 600 women and 400 women as members. One way to get a stratified random sample of size 30 is to take a SRS of 18 women from the 600 women and another SRS of 12 men from the 400 men.)

 Multi-Stage Sampling: Sometimes the population is too large and scattered for it to be practical to make a list of the entire population from which to draw a SRS. For instance, when the a polling organization samples US voters, they do not do a SRS. Since voter lists are compiled by counties, they might first do a sample of the counties and then sample within the selected counties. This illustrates two stages. In some instances, they might use even more stages. At each stage, they might do a stratified random sample on sex, race, income level, or any other useful variable on which they could get information before sampling.

 For the sample design, many possibilities exist (e.g., simple random sample, stratified sample, cluster sample).

 Conduct the Fieldwork. Fieldwork begins with obtaining clearance or approval to conduct the survey. It may be necessary to seek clearance or approval not only from respondents (e.g., students), but also gatekeepers to the respondent (e.g., school administrators and parents). Data collection protocols must also be developed. The goal is to standardize data collection as much as possible to assure quality control throughout the fieldwork, to obtain a high response rate, and, often, to protect the privacy of respondents.

Conduct the Fieldwork

 Selection of data collectors or field staff is also important. It is best to select persons appropriate for the content of the survey and the demographic characteristics of the population of interest (e.g., female interviewers for surveys on reproductive health issues among women). Formal training of data collectors or field staff will help them become familiar with the questionnaire format, content, mode of data collection, data collection protocol, and quality control procedures.

Enter, Edit, and Prepare Data for Analysis

Since the 1980s, data entry has become easier due to advances in electronic data input. Previously, most survey data were entered manually by key punching and then reentered to assure accuracy. Today, most survey data collected using questionnaires are scanned electronically into a data set. Data collected via computer-assisted interviewing are automatically entered into a data set. Once entered, the data are edited for out-ofrange responses, simple consistency, and logic errors.

 Then the sample is weighted to adjust for non response, varying probabilities of selection, and sample characteristics. Weighting is necessary to ensure that the data are representative of the entire population of interest.

Types of Surveys
Surveys can be divided into two broad categories: the questionnaire and the interview. Questionnaires are usually paper-and-pencil instruments that the respondent completes. Interviews are completed by the interviewer based on the respondent says. Sometimes, it's hard to tell the difference between a questionnaire and an interview. For instance, some people think that questionnaires always ask short closed-ended questions while interviews always ask broad open-ended ones.

 . But you will see questionnaires with openended questions (although they do tend to be shorter than in interviews) and there will often be a series of closed-ended questions asked in an interview.

 questionnaires, are the mail survey. There are many advantages to mail surveys. They are relatively inexpensive to administer. You can send the exact same instrument to a wide number of people. They allow the respondent to fill it out at their own convenience.

 But there are some disadvantages as well. Response rates from mail surveys are often very low. mail questionnaires are not the best vehicles for asking for detailed written responses.

 A second type is the group administered questionnaire. A sample of respondents is brought together and asked to respond to a structured sequence of questions. Traditionally, questionnaires were administered in group settings for convenience. The researcher could give the questionnaire to those who were present and be fairly sure that there would be a high response rate.

 If the respondents were unclear about the meaning of a question they could ask for clarification. there are often organizational settings where it is relatively easy to assemble the group (in a company or business, for instance).

 A less familiar type of questionnaire is the household drop-off survey. In this approach, a researcher goes to the respondent's home or business and hands the respondent the instrument. In some cases, the respondent is asked to mail it back or the interview returns to pick it up. This approach attempts to blend the advantages of the mail survey and the group administered questionnaire.

 Like the mail survey, the respondent can work on the instrument in private, when it's convenient. Like the group administered questionnaire, the interviewer makes personal contact with the respondent -- they don't just send an impersonal survey instrument. And, the respondent can ask questions about the study and get clarification on what is to be done. Generally, this would be expected to increase the percent of people who are willing to respond.

 Like the mail survey, the respondent can work on the instrument in private, when it's convenient. Like the group administered questionnaire, the interviewer makes personal contact with the respondent -- they don't just send an impersonal survey instrument. the respondent can ask questions about the study and get clarification on what is to be done. Generally, this would be expected to increase the percent of people who are willing to respond.

 Interviews Interviews are a far more personal form of research than questionnaires. In the personal interview, the interviewer works directly with the respondent. Unlike with mail surveys, the interviewer has the opportunity to probe or ask follow-up questions. interviews are generally easier for the respondent, especially if what is sought is opinions or impressions. Interviews can be very time consuming and they are resource intensive. The interviewer is considered a part of the measurement instrument and interviewers have to be well trained in how to respond to any contingency.

 everyone is familiar with the telephone interview. Telephone interviews enable a researcher to gather information rapidly. Most of the major public opinion polls that are reported are based on telephone interviews. Like personal interviews, they allow for some personal contact between the interviewer and the respondent. And, they allow the interviewer to ask follow-up questions.

 But they also have some major disadvantages. Many people don't have publicly-listed telephone numbers. Some don't have telephones. People often don't like the intrusion of a call to their homes. And, telephone interviews have to be relatively short or people will feel imposed upon.

 Survey questions can be divided into two broad types: structured and unstructured. When a question has two possible responses, we consider it dichotomous.

Surveys often use dichotomous questions that ask for a Yes/No, True/False or Agree/Disagree response

Questions Based on Level Of Measurement Filter or Contingency Questions Decisions About Placement---Is the answer influenced by prior questions? Does question come too early or too late to arouse interest? Does the question receive sufficient attention?

 The Opening Questions first impressions are important in survey work. The first few questions you ask will determine the tone for the survey, and can help put your respondent at ease. With that in mind, the opening few questions should, in general, be easy to answer.

You should never begin your survey with sensitive or threatening questions.

 Sensitive Questions In much of our social research, we have to ask respondents about difficult or uncomfortable subjects.

Before asking such questions, you should attempt to develop some trust or rapport with the respondent.
Often, preceding the sensitive questions with some easier warm-up ones will help

 start with easy, nonthreatening questions put more difficult, threatening questions near end never start a mail survey with an open-ended question for historical demographics, follow chronological order ask about one topic at a time when switching topics, use a transition for filter or contingency questions, make a flowchart

 Do unto your respondents as you would have them do unto you! Thank the respondent at the beginning for allowing you to conduct your study Keep your survey as short as possible -- only include what is absolutely necessary Be sensitive to the needs of the respondent Be alert for any sign that the respondent is uncomfortable Thank the respondent at the end for participating Assure the respondent that you will send a copy of the final results

INTERVIEW/SCHEDULE
The Role of the Interviewer Locate and enlist cooperation of respondents Motivate respondents to do good job Clarify any confusion/concerns Observe quality of responses Conduct a good interview Use questionnaire carefully, but informally