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Human Impact
What is the Human Impact on Biodiversity? increasing fragmentation, habitat loss, degradation ***greatest threat to species eliminating wetlands use/waste/destroy net primary productivity of ecosystems logging land conversion (agriculture, commercial development) destruction of coral reefs simplifying many diverse ecosystems (because of development) and preventing speciation (speciation crisis) increase speciation of opportunist species (insects/weeds) when we degrade land decrease level of higher order organisms mammals and trees pollution, use of pesticides, and climate change
Species Extinction:
Local species no longer in particular area Ecological species are so few no longer play role in ecological community Biological species no longer found forever # and diversity of species balance between speciation and extinction Biodiversity = Speciation - Extinction 99.9% of all species that existed now extinct (by evolution) Extinction spasms large # lost over a few centuries to 1000 years Use models of species vs area loss of habitat (90%)causes loss of species (50%) Current rate of extinction between .1% - 1% per year (not sure) Still exponential compared to before humans existed (.0001%) extinction rates higher when biodiversity rich Ex-tropical rainforests, coral reefs
Extinct Organisms
Passenger pigeon
Great auk
Dodo
Aepyornis (Madagascar)
Extinction occurs from habitat loss nonnative species hunting and poaching
Type of Nonnative Organism Crop disease Crop weeds Rats Feral cats and outdoor pet cats Crop insects Livestock diseases Forest insects and diseases Zebra mussels Common pigeon
Annual Losses and Damages $23.5 billion $23.4 billion $19 billion $17 billion $14 billion $9 billion $4.8 billion $3 billion $1.1 billion
Formosan termite
Fishes Asian clam Feral pigs Starlings Fire ant
Marine toad
Water hyacinth
Japanese beetle
Hydrilla
Invasive Species
Formosan termite
Zebra mussel
Solutions
Bioinformatics communicating biological information Ex - via internet Ex Species 2000 lists all species for study CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (1975) now signed by 152 countries protects endangered or threatened wild species 2 US Laws: Lacey Act of 1990 prohibits transporting wild animals across states border without a permit Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA) amended in 1982-1988 illegal for Americans to import or trade any product made from endangered or threatened species (unless used for science) need to protect critical habitat laws hard to enforce, little fines given Wildlife Management Sanctuaries/Refuges/Zoos/Aquariums
Layers of a Tree Emergent birds and bats Canopy birds and reptiles Understory shady plants, birds, squirrels Floor insects, bacteria Subsoil nematodes, microorganisms
Old growth forests (frontier) around for several hundred years uncut forests/regenerated lots of diversity Second growth forests secondary ecological succession human activity (clear cutting for timber or conversion to cropland) natural forces (fire, hurricanes, volcanoes) Tree plantations/free farms uniform trees of one species harvested by clear-cutting commercially valuable produce 10% of worlds wood
Forests provide many ecological and economic services: cycling reduce soil erosion absorb and release water purify air and water influence climate/reduce global warming store carbon provide wildlife habitats fuelwood (developing countries) provides 7% of worlds energy supply (developing 15%, 3% developed) lumber pulp to make paper mining livestock grazing recreation and jobs prescription drugs Paper Production worlds fastest growing use of wood (use pulpwood) 50% packaging, 30% writing and printing, 12% newspaper, 8% tissues/towels
Fuelwood
Lumber Pulp to make paper
Mining
Purify water Livestock grazing Purify air Recreation Influence local and regional climate Store atmospheric carbon Provide numerous wildlife habitats
Jobs
Land Use:
urban use (2%), cropland (11%), desert (20%), wetlands, tundra (9%),pastures/rangeland (26%), forests (32% ) Federal Public Lands vs Private Lands 35% federal, 55% private, 7% state and local, 3% native American (US) 1)multiple use lands used for all purposes mining, logging, recreation, farming, fishing, conservation National Forest System managed by US Forest Service 156 forests and 22 grasslands Bureau of Land Management (BLM) manages National Resource lands in western states and Alaska 2)moderately restricted use lands some permitted activities but regulated regulate 524 National Wildlife Refuges 3)restricted use lands 55 major parks and 324 national recreation areas (NPS-national park) only camping, hiking, fishing, boating
Forest management
Even aged management trees same age and size industrial forestry tree plantation fast growing economically desirable 6-100 years (depends on species) Uneven aged management longer term many sizes and shapes variety of tree species biological diversity long term production quality lumber (if you want nicer furniture) selective cutting multiple use of forest (timber as well as wildlife, watershed protection, and recreation) fosters natural regeneration Tropics can be 6-10 year rotations Temperate 20-30 years rotations
Management Strategies
Fig. 23-11 p. 601
Tree Harvesting:
Selective cutting intermediate/mature trees in uneven-aged forest, cut individual or in small groups Shelterwood cutting removes all mature trees in 2 or three cuttings, over 10 years Seed-tree cutting harvests all in 1 cutting, leaves a few seed-producing trees to regenerate Clear-cutting removes all trees from an area in a singe cutting Strip cutting clear cutting of forest in narrow strips over several decades with minimal damage
Selective Cutting
Clear-Cutting
Seed-Tree Cutting
Uncut
Cut
Cut
Cut
Uncut
Strip Cutting
Impacts of Deforestation:
reduces biodiversity reduces uptake of greenhouse gases CO2 adds CO2 if trees burned or allowed to decay (contributed 30% of buildup of CO2) affects precipitation decline of rainfall increases soil erosion accelerates floods by removing tree cover
Chestnut blight has eliminated Chestnut trees as a commercial tree. (no cure)
Surface Fire
Crown Fire
Fire
Surface fires
Crown fires
Solutions
sustainable grow more timber on long rotations strip cutting/selective cutting instead of clear cutting minimize fragmentation minimize erosion reduce road building into uncut forest leaving standing dead trees (snags) and fallen timber (boles) to maintain wildlife habitats/recycled as nutrients switch to nonrenewable resources (ironic to say) Ex use steel/aluminum framing, carpeting genetically improved trees on tree plantations (that use less space) debt for nature swap protect nature and we will give you foreign aid or debt relief use tree-free fibers Ex Kenaf in US (rapidly growing woody annual plant, expensive, 3 times more expensive)
National Parks
1100 National Parks in World US National Park System established in 1912 55 National Parks (most in west) Parks/ Reserves should be placed in worlds most biodiverse countries (rainforests) and at hot spots - areas rich in plants and animals Nature Parks/Preserves (to protect biodiversity) 1)Circular reserve better than rectangle? YES - less edges 2)Single large preserve vs several small reserves? Large Preserve - Better to maintain large species/more species Several Small Reserves - wider variety of habitats/more biodiversity/ cannot be devastated) 3)Homogeneous or heterogeneous reserve? better to have heterogeneous because have a variety of habitat patches -patch dynamics with different sizes, shapes, and successional stages 4)Should small reserves be connected or isolated? should be connected by habitat corridors helps support more species allows for migration of animals if conditions unsuitable (like global warming) 5)Want Buffer zones (biosphere reserve) inner core surrounded by buffer zones
Biosphere Reserve
Human settlements