Air Pollution Management: Air

Pollution Control Devices

M.Phil-Ph.D.
Centre for Environmental Science and Technology
Central University of Punjab,
Bathinda
Control Techniques
Fabric filters
Gravity settling chamber
Mechanical collectors
Particulate wet scrubbers
Electrostatic precipitators

Fabric Filters
Operating Principles

Fabric filters collect particulate matter on the surfaces of filter bags.

Most of the particles are captured by inertial impaction,
interception, Brownian diffusion, and sieving on already collected
particles that have formed a dust layer on the bags.

The fabric material itself can capture particles that have penetrated
through the dust layers.

Electrostatic attraction may also contribute to particle capture in the
dust layer and in the fabric itself.
Due to the multiple mechanisms of particle capture possible, fabric filters can
be highly efficient for the entire particle size range of interest in air pollution
control.
Types of Fabric Filters
A reverse-air-type fabric filter, shown in Figure 13, is one of the major categories of fabric
filters. It is used mainly for large industrial sources.

In this type, the particle-laden gas stream enters from the bottom and passes into the
inside of the bags.

The dust cake accumulates on the inside surfaces of the bags.

Filtered gas passes through the bags and is exhausted from the unit.
When cleaning is necessary, dampers are used to isolate a
compartment of bags from the inlet gas flow.

Then, some of the filtered gas passes in the reverse direction
(from the outside of the bag to the inside) in order to remove
some of the dust cake.

The gas used for reverse air cleaning is re-filtered and released.
Fabric Filters
Another common type of fabric filter is the pulse jet shown
in Figure 14.

In this type, the bags are supported on metal wire cages
that are suspended from the top of the unit.

Particulate-laden gas flows around the outside of the bags,
and a dust cake accumulates on the exterior surfaces.

When cleaning is needed, a very-short-duration pulse of
compressed air is injected at the top inside part of each
bag in the row of bags being cleaned.
Fabric Filters
The compressed air pulse generates a pressure wave that moves
down each bag and, in the process, dislodges some of the dust
cake from the bag.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Fabric Filters
Fabric filters are used in a wide variety of applications
where high efficiency particulate collection is needed.

The control efficiencies usually range from 99% to greater
than 99.5% depending on the characteristics of the
particulate matter and the fabric filter design.

Fabric filters can be very efficient at collecting particles in
the entire size range of interest in air pollution control.
The performance of fabric filters is usually independent of
the chemical composition of the particulate matter.

They are not used when the gas stream generated by the
process equipment includes corrosive materials that could
chemically attack the filter media.

Fabric filters are also not used when there are sticky or wet
particles in the gas stream.

These materials accumulate on the filter media surface and
block gas movement.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Fabric Filters
Fabric filters must be designed carefully if there are
potentially combustible or explosive particulate matter,
gases, or vapors in the gas stream being treated.

If these conditions are severe, alternative control
techniques, such as wet scrubbers, are often used.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Fabric Filters
Gravity Settling Chambers
This category of control devices relies upon gravity settling to
remove particles from the gas stream.

Gravity settling chambers are used only for very large
particles in the upper end of the supercoarse size range
(approximately 75 micrometers and larger).

The very low terminal settling velocities of most particles
encountered in the field of air pollution limit the usefulness
of gravity settling chambers.

The stringent control requirements adopted in the late 1960s
through early 1970s have resulted in a sharp decline in the
use of this type of collector.
Mechanical Collectors
The particulate-laden gas stream is forced to spin in a cyclonic
manner.

The mass of the particles causes them to move toward the
outside of the vortex.

Most of the large-diameter particles enter a hopper below the
cyclonic tubes while the gas stream turns and exits the tube.
There are two main types of mechanical collectors: (1)
large-diameter cyclones, and (2) small-diameter multi-
cyclones.

Large-diameter cyclones are usually one to six feet in
diameter; while small-diameter multi-cyclones usually have
diameters between 3 and 12 inches.

A typical large-diameter cyclone system is shown in Figure
1.

The gas stream enters the cyclone tangentially and creates a
weak vortex of spinning gas in the cyclone body.
Mechanical Collectors
Large-diameter particles move toward the cyclone body
wall and then settle into the hopper of the cyclone.

The cleaned gas turns and exits the cyclone.

Large-diameter cyclones are used to collect particles down
to 1/16 inch (1.5 mm) diameter and above.
Mechanical Collectors
Mechanical Collectors
In systems where the large-diameter cyclone is located
after the fan (positive pressure), the treated gas is usually
discharged directly from the cyclone.


In systems where the cyclone is located before the fan
(negative pressure), the gas stream is either exhausted
from a separate stack or from the discharge of the fan itself.


In negative pressure systems, a solids discharge valve is
used to prevent air infiltration up through the hopper area.
Mechanical Collectors
A small-diameter cyclone tube is shown in Figure 2.

Vanes located on the inlet of each of the tubes
create the spinning movement of the gas stream.

Most of the commercial tubes are six, nine, or twelve
inches in diameter.

Due to the limited gas handling capacity of each
tube, large numbers of tubes are mounted in parallel
in a single collector.
Mechanical Collectors
Mechanical Collectors
The small-diameter of the cyclone tube creates more rapid spinning of
the gas stream than in large-diameter cyclones.

The particles moving outward in the spinning gas stream have a relatively
shorter distance to travel in a small-diameter multi-cyclone tube before
they reach the cyclone body wall.

These features allow small-diameter multi-cyclones to collect
considerably smaller particles than large-diameter cyclones can.
Mechanical Collectors
Small-diameter multi-cyclones, such as the one shown in Figure 2 are
capable of removing particles having diameters down to 5 micrometers.

Small-diameter multi-cyclones are not generally used for very large
diameter material, such as 3 mm and above, because large particles may
plug the spinner vanes in the multi-cyclone tubes.

Some mechanical collectors are specially designed to provide high-
efficiency PM collection down to a particle size of one micrometer.
Mechanical Collectors
These have higher gas velocities within the cyclone tubes and different
cyclone geometries than those shown in Figure 2.
A typical application of a conventional multi-cyclone collector is shown
in Figure 3.
In this example, the multi-cyclone is located after a small, wood-fired
boiler and is used as a pre-collector for the fabric filter.
Mechanical Collectors
Mechanical collectors are used whenever the particle size relatively large (> 5
micrometers) and/or the control efficiency requirements are in the low-to-moderate
range of 50 to 90%.

They are also used as the pre-collector of large-diameter embers generated in some
combustion systems.

Removal of the embers is necessary to protect high-efficiency particulate control systems
downstream from the mechanical collectors.

Most mechanical collectors are not applicable to industrial sources that generate sticky
and/or wet particulate matter.

These materials can accumulate on the cyclone body wall or the inlet spinner vanes of
conventional multi-cyclone collectors.
Cyclone
2
1
2
5 . 0
9
(
(

=
u

g p
Q
H B
d
( )
2 1
2 L L
H
+ =
t
u
D
e

L
3

D
2

L
1

L
2

D
d

H
B
d
0.5
= cut diameter at 50% removal
= dynamic viscosity of gas, Pa-s
B = width, m
H = height, m

p
= particle density, kg/m3
Q
g
= gas flow rate, m3/s
u = effective number of turns
Ex. 6-9
Given:
D
2
= 0.5 m
Q
g
= 4 m
3
/s
T = 25
o
C

p
= 800 kg/m
3


For standard Cyclone:
B = 0.25 D
2
= 0.13 m
H = 0.5 D
2
= 0.25 m
L
1
= L
2
= 2 D
2
= 1 m
Q = What is the removal efficiency
for particles with ave
diameter of 10 m?
( ) 7 . 37 1 ) 1 ( 2
25 . 0
= + =
t
u
) ( 41 . 2
10 41 . 2
) 7 . 37 )( 4 )( 800 (
) 25 . 0 ( ) 13 . 0 )( 10 5 . 18 ( 9
6
5 . 0
2 6
5 . 0
m
x
x
d
=
=
(

@ d =10 m
15 . 4
41 . 2
10
5 . 0
= =
d
d
q = 0.95
Electrostatic Precipitators
An electrostatic precipitator (ESP) uses non-uniform, high-
voltage fields to apply large electrical charges to particles
moving through the field.

The charged particles move toward an oppositely charged
collection surface, where they accumulate.

There are three main styles of electrostatic precipitators:
(1) negatively charged dry precipitators, (2) negatively
charged wetted-wall precipitators, and (3) positively
charged two-stage precipitators.
The negatively charged dry precipitators are the
type most frequently used on large applications
such as coal-fired boilers, cement kilns, and kraft
pulp mills.

Wetted-wall precipitators (wet precipitators) are
often used to collect mist and/or solid material
that is moderately sticky.

The positively charged two-stage precipitators are
used only for the removal of mists.


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Electrostatic precipitation has been a reliable technology
since the early 1900's. Originally developed to abate serious
smoke nuisances. Zinc, copper, and lead industries found ESP a
cost efficient way to recover valuable product. Today ESP are
found mainly on large power plants, incinerators, cement
plants,
In wood products industry, ESP preceded by multi clones is
considered the best available control technology for wood
fired boiler emissions. Wet ESP have found renewed interest
from particle board, and plywood veneer manufactures for
controlling dryer exhaust.
An ESP can consistently provide 99%+ removal reducing
emissions levels to 0.002 - 0.015 grains per dry standard cubic
foot of exhaust gas.
Precipitators are designed to handle flow form 10,000 cfm to
300,000 cfm and can operate at temperatures as high as 750
degrees F. Normal gas flow through a precipitator is 2-5 feet
per second, consequently, the pressure drop is only 0.5" wc.


Many countries around the world depend on coal and other fossil fuels to produce
electricity. A natural result from the burning of fossil fuels, particularly coal, is the
emission of flyash. Ash is mineral matter present in the fuel. For a pulverized coal unit,
60-80% of ash leaves with the flue gas. Flyash emissions have received the greatest
attention since they are easily seen leaving smokestacks.
Two emission control devices for flyash are
The traditional fabric filters - The fabric filters are large baghouse filters having a high
maintenance cost (the cloth bags have a life of 18 to 36 months, but can be temporarily cleaned
by shaking or back flushing with air). These fabric filters are inherently large structures resulting in
a large pressure drop, which reduces the plant efficiency
The electrostatic precipitators - ESP have collection efficiency of 99%, but do not work well for
flyash with a high electrical resistivity (as commonly results from combustion of low-sulfur coal).
In addition, the designer must avoid allowing unburned gas to enter the electrostatic precipitator
since the gas could be ignited.
DESIGN AND OPERATION
A precipitator is a relatively simple device.
The main components are as follows
An insulated and lagged shell
Collection plates or tubes
Discharge electrodes
Collection Plate Rappers/Electrode Vibrators
Hoppers
Insulated Steel Housing: The development of modular, factory built units has significantly lowered
the installed cost of precipitators. Dry precipitators are normally fabricated from 3/16" thick steel
plate, insulated and lagged with aluminum. The electrodes are made of steel tubing and the
collection plates are made of rolled steel. The housing can last 15-20 years.
Wet precipitators are traditionally fabricated of stainless steel for corrosion resistance.
Discharge Electrodes: In the past dust particles were charged by a series of small diameter wires
which were suspended from a ceiling rack and weights at the bottom. This maze of electrodes was
subject to electric erosion. Today, discharge electrodes are rigid and constructed of 2" steel tubing.
Ten years of continuous service is the expected norm.
Rappers and Vibrators: Heavy duty rappers are used in the wood industry. They consist of 30 pound
piston hammers designed to rap small sections of collection plates. A timer periodically releases the
rapper to transfer the dust on the collection plates to the hopper. Electric vibrators are placed on
the electrode rack to transfer any collected dust to the hopper and are operated by a timer.
Power: ESP will take 480 volt AC and transform / convert the power to 55-70,000 Volt DC.
Electrostatic precipitator use the lowest power to accomplish the job. Electrostatic forces are
applied directly to the particles and not the entire gas stream. Combining this feature with the low
pressure drop (0.5" wc) across the system results in power requirements approximately 50% of
comparable wet systems and 25% of equivalent bag filter systems.
Efficiency of Electrostatic Precipitators
The efficiency of removal of particles by
an Electrostatic Precipitator is given by



= fractional collection efficiency
w = drift velocity, m/min.
A = available collection area, m
2
Q = volumetric flow rate m
3
/min
Migration velocity



Where,
q = charge (columbos)
Ep = collection field intensity (volts/m)
r = particle radius (m)
= dynamic viscosity of gas (Pa-S)
c = cunningham correction factor



Cunningham correction factor



where,
T = absolute temperature (k)
d
p
= diameter of particle (m)

Collection Efficiency of ESPs
The efficiency is usually at a minimum in the range of 0.1 to
0.5 micrometers.

The shape of the efficiency curve is the combined effect of
two particle electrical charging mechanisms, neither of
which is highly effective in this particle size range.

It should be noted that this decrease in efficiency occurs in
the same particle size range as for particulate wet
scrubbers.

However, the reason for this decreased efficiency zone is
entirely different than that for particulate wet scrubbers.
5/1/2013
Factors that influence precipitator sizing are:


gas volume

precipitator inlet loading

precipitator outlet loading required

outlet opacity required

particulate resistivity

particle size
Particle size of the incoming particulate has a dramatic impact on the sizing of an
electrostatic precipitator.
Fluid Catalytic Crackers and Recovery Boilers, which have particle resistivities in the
medium range, exhibit very fine particulate. The size of the precipitator must be
increased in these cases because the fine particulate is easily re-entrained into the
gas stream.
In the power industry, generally the higher the fuel ash content, the larger the ash
particle size.
Resistivity is the resistance of a medium to the flow of an electrical current. By definition,
resistivity, which has units of ohm-cm, is the electrical resistance of a dust sample 1 cm2 in cross
sectional area and 1 cm thick.
Resistivity levels are generally broken down into three categories :
Low <10
5
ohm-cm
Medium 10
5
to 10
11
ohm-cm
High >10
11
ohm-cm

Particles with medium resistivity are the most acceptable for electrostatic precipitators. Particles
in the low range are easily charged, however upon contact with the collecting electrodes, they
rapidly loss their negative charge and are repelled by the collecting electrodes back into the gas
stream. Particles in the high resistivity category may cause back corona which is a localized
discharge at the collecting electrode due to the surface being coated by a layer of non-conductive
material.
Resistivity is influenced by flue gas temperature and conditioning agents, such as flue gas moisture
and ash chemistry. Conductive chemical species, such as sulfur and sodium will tend to reduce
resistivity levels while insulating species, such as SiO
2
, Al
2
O
3
and Ca will tend to increase resistivity
(ash from low sulfur coal is). Flue gas conditioning with SO
3
can reduce resistivity to a more
optimum value thus reducing the size of the precipitator needed.
ESP Advantages

They have high efficiencies (exceeds 99.9% in some applications)
Fine dust particles are collected efficiently
Can function at high temperatures (as high as 700 degree F 1300 degree F)
Pressure and temperature changes are small
Difficult material like acid and tars can be collected
They withstand extremely corrosive material
Low power requirement for cleaning
Dry dust is collected making recovery of lost product easy
Large flow rates are possible

ESP Disadvantages

High initial cost
Materials with very high or low resistivity are difficult to collect
Inefficiencies could arise in the system due to variable condition of airflow (though
automatic voltage control improves collector efficiency)
They can be larger than baghouses (fabric collectors) and cartridge units, and can occupy
greater space
Material in gaseous phase cannot be removed by electrostatic method
Dust loads may be needed to be reduced before precipitation process (precleaner may be
needed)

When are Electrostatic Precipitators not a suitable solution?
As the size of the required precipitator increases, other technologies become more
cost effective. For low sulfur utility applications, fabric filters are an attractive
alternative. As part of the overall precipitator/fabric filter cost evaluation, operating
costs need to be included. Typically, the pressure drop across a flange to flange fabric
filter will be in the 6 to 8" w.c. range whereas an electrostatic precipitator will have
approximately a 0.5 to 1" w.c. pressure drop. This pressure drop penalty for a fabric
filter will be somewhat offset by its lower power consumption.
Another benefit of a fabric filter is high acid gas, SO2, chlorides, fluorides and Hg
removal capability.
When operating downstream of a spray dryer absorber, removal efficiencies of 90% or
greater can be attained for some species when operating in conjunction with a fabric
filter. The fabric filter dust layer acts as a fixed bed where high acid gas removal
efficiency can take place. Since most of the particulate is removed from the collecting
electrodes of a precipitator during normal operation, acid gas removal capability is
much reduced.
Wet Electrostatic Precipitators


Wet electrostatic precipitators (WESPs)
operate in the same three-step process as
dry ESPs charging, collecting and finally
cleaning of the particles.
However, cleaning the collecting electrode is
performed by washing the collection surface
with liquid rather than mechanically rapping
the collection plates.
While the cleaning mechanism would not be
thought to have any impact upon
performance, it significantly affects the
nature of the particles that can be captured,
the performance efficiencies that can be
achieved, and the design parameters and
operating maintenance of the equipment.
The scale of a typical electrostatic precipitator used
at a coal-fired boiler.

Essentially all of these units are divided into a number of
separately energized areas that are termed fields (see Figure
10).

Most precipitators have between three and ten fields in
series along the gas flow path.

On large units, the precipitators are divided into a number of
separate, parallel chambers, each of which has an equal
number of fields in series.

There is a solid partition or physical separation between the
2 to 8 chambers that are present on the large systems.
Advantages and Disadvantages of ESPs
Electrostatic precipitators can have very high efficiencies due to
the strong electrical forces applied to the small particles.

These types of collectors can be used when the gas stream is not
explosive and does not contain entrained droplets or other sticky
material.

The composition of the particulate matter is very important
because it influences the electrical conductivity within the dust
layers on the collection plate.

Resistivity, an important concept associated with
electrostatic precipitators, is a measure of the ability of the
particulate matter to conduct electricity and is expressed
in units of ohm-cm.


As the resistivity increases, the ability of the particulate
matter to conduct electricity decreases.


Precipitators can be designed to work in any resistivity
range; however, they usually work best when the resistivity
is in the moderate range (108 to 1010 ohms-cm).

Particulate Wet Scrubbers
There are a number of major categories of particulate wet
scrubbers:

- Venturis -Impingement and Sieve Plates
- Spray Towers -Mechanically Aided
- Condensation Growth -Packed Beds
- Ejector -Mobile Bed
- Caternary Grid -Froth Tower
-Oriented Fiber Pad -Wetted Mist Eliminators

We will discuss three of the above types of scrubbers:
venturis, impingement plate scrubbers, and spray towers.
Venturi Scrubbers
A typical venturi throat is shown in Figure 4.

Particulate matter, which accelerates as it enters the
throat, is driven into the slow moving, large water
droplets that are introduced near the high velocity
point at the inlet of the venturi throat.

The adjustable dampers in the unit illustrated are
used to adjust the open cross-sectional area and
thereby affect the speed of the particles entrained in
the inlet gas stream.
Impingement Plate Scrubbers
An impingement plate scrubber is shown in Figure 5.

These scrubbers usually have one to three horizontal
plates, each of which has a large number of small holes.

The gas stream accelerating through the holes atomizes
some water droplets in the water layer above the plate.

Particles impact into these water droplets.
Spray Tower Scrubbers
A typical spray tower scrubber is shown in Figure 6.

This is the simplest type of particulate wet scrubber in
commercial service.

Sets of spray nozzles located near the top of the scrubber
vessel generate water droplets that impact with particles
in the gas stream as the gas stream moves upwards.
Each of the categories of particulate wet scrubbers listed earlier has a large
number of different design types.

For example, venturi scrubbers include the following different design types: (1)
fixed throat, (2) adjustable throat.

Spray tower scrubbers include these design types: (1) open, (2) cyclonic.

The scrubber categories listed above comprise more than fifty different types of
scrubbers in common commercial use.

Scrubbers are by far the most diverse group of air pollution control devices used
for particulate control.
Wet Scrubbing Systems
Each particulate wet scrubber vessel is part of a large,
and sometimes complex, wet scrubbing system.

For example, Figure 7 illustrates a venturi scrubber in a
scrubbing system.

The evaporative cooler, located before the venturi
scrubber in the system, cools the gas stream, which
serves the following purpose:

1- It protects the construction materials of the venturi
throat.
2- It helps to homogeneously and heterogeneously
nucleate vapor phase material emitted from the
process before it reaches the scrubbing system.

3-It prevents the water droplets from evaporating and
inhibiting inertial impaction.
Located after the venturi scrubber, the cyclonic separator removes entrained
water droplets from the gas stream leaving the venturi.

The cyclonic separator consists of a cyclonic vessel and a horizontal mist
eliminator.

The overall scrubbing system includes pumps for liquid recirculation, a tank to
treat the liquid being recirculated, an alkali addition unit to control the liquid pH,
a purged liquid treatment unit, a fan for gas movement, and a stack.

There are a wide variety of wet scrubber system designs; however, these
components are present in many systems, regardless of which type of
particulate matter scrubber is used.
The ability of a particulate wet scrubber to remove particles
depends on two or more of the following variables:

The size (aerodynamic diameter) of the particle

The velocity of the particle

The velocity of the droplet.
Scrubber Operating Principles
Collection Efficiency of Wet Scrubbers
The velocities of the particle-laden gas stream and the
liquid targets vary substantially.

There are substantial differences in the ability of particulate
wet scrubbers to collect particles less than approximately 5
micrometers.

This is illustrated in Figure 8.
If a significant portion of the particulate matter mass is composed of particles <
5 micrometers, care is needed to select the type of scrubber that is effective in
this size range.

It should be noted that some types of wet scrubbers have limited capability to
remove particles in the less than 0.3-micrometer range.

These particles are so small that their movement is influenced by collisions with
individual molecules in the gas stream.
Scrubber
Efficiency

where,
k = Scrubber coefficient (m
3
of gas/ m
3
of liquid)
R = Liquid-to-gas flow rate (Q
L
/Q
G
)
= internal impaction parameter

Internal impaction parameter


where,
c = cunningham correction factor

p
= particle density (kg/m
3
)
Vg = speed of gas at throat (m/sec)
d
p
= diameter of particle (m)
d
d
= diameter of droplet (m)
= dynamic viscosity of gas, (Pa-S)



Advantages and Disadvantages of Scrubbers
Many types of particulate wet scrubbers can provide high
efficiency control of particulate matter.

One of the main advantages of particulate wet scrubbers is
that they are often able to simultaneously collect
particulate matter and gaseous pollutants.

Also, wet scrubbers can often be used on sources that have
potentially explosive gases or particulate matter.

They are compact and can often be retrofitted into existing
plants with very limited space.
One of the main disadvantages of particulate wet scrubbers is that they
require make-up water to replace the water vaporized into the gas stream
and lost to purge liquid and sludge removed from the scrubber system.

Wet scrubbers generate a waste stream that must be treated properly.
General Applicability of Particulate
Control Systems
Particulate matter control systems are often selected
based on the general criteria listed in Figure 15.
If there is a high concentration of wet and/or sticky particulate matter, either a
particulate wet scrubber or a wet electrostatic precipitator is used.

If wet or sticky materials are present with combustible materials or explosive
gases or vapors, the particulate wet scrubber is most appropriate.

If the particulate matter is primarily dry, mechanical collectors, particulate wet
scrubbers, conventional electrostatic precipitators, and fabric filters can be used.

The next step in the selection process is to determine if the particulate matter
and/or gases and vapors in the gas stream are combustible or explosive.

If so, then mechanical collectors or particulate wet scrubbers can be used
because both of these categories of systems can be designed to minimize the
risks of ignition.

In some cases, a fabric filter can also be used if it includes the appropriate safety
equipment.

An electrostatic precipitator is not used due to the risk of
ignition caused by electrical sparking in the precipitator fields.

When selecting between mechanical collectors and wet
scrubbers, mechanical collectors are the more economical
choice.

They have a lower purchase cost and a lower operating cost
than wet scrubbers.

If the dry particulate matter is present in a gas stream that is
not combustible or explosive, the selection depends on the
particle size range and the control efficiency requirements.
If a significant portion of the gas stream is in the less than
0.5-micrometer size range, and high efficiency control is
needed, a fabric filter is the most common choice.

If a significant portion of the particulate matter is in the
0.5- to 5-micrometer size range, and high efficiency control
is needed, fabric filters, electrostatic precipitators, or
particulate wet scrubbers (certain types) could be used.


If most of the particulate matter is larger than 5
micrometers, any of the four main types of particulate
control systems could be used.

There are numerous exceptions to the general applicability
information presented above due to site-specific process
conditions and unique particulate matter control systems.

Nevertheless, this chart provides a general indication of the
uses and limitations of many commercially available
particulate matter control systems.
The applicability of VOC control systems for high concentration
systems also depends, in part, on the number of separate VOC
compounds present in the gas stream and the economic
incentives for recovery and reuse.

Thermal oxidizers can be used in all cases in which recovery and
reuse are not desired or economically feasible.

Catalytic oxidizers can be used in these same situations if there
are no gas stream components that would poison, mask, or foul
the catalyst.

Adsorbers can also be used for this service as long as there are
environmentally acceptable means for disposal of the collected
organics.
If recovery and reuse are desired, either adsorbers or
condenser/refrigeration systems can be used.

These systems are limited to gas streams containing
at most three organic compounds due to the costs
associated with separating the recovered material
into individual components.

If the process can reuse a multi-component organic
stream, both adsorbers and condenser/refrigeration
systems can be used without the costs of recovered
material purification and reprocessing.
There are a number of commercial VOC control
systems that fall outside the general pattern of
applicability indicated in Figures 5 and 6.


These figures provide a very general indication of the
uses and limitations of the five main types of VOC
control systems.
GENERAL METHODS FOR CONTROL OF SO
2

EMISSIONS
Change to Low Sulfur Fuel
- Natural Gas
- Liquefied Natural Gas
- Low Sulfur Oil
- Low Sulfur Coal
Use Desulfurized Coal and Oil Increase
Effective Stack Height
- Build Tall Stacks
- Redistribution of Stack Gas Velocity Profile
- Modification of Plume Buoyancy
General Methods for Control of SO
2

Emissions (contd.)
Use Flue Gas Desulfurization Systems

Use Alternative Energy Sources, such as Hydro-
Power or Nuclear-Power
Flue Gas Desulfurization
SO
2
scrubbing, or Flue Gas Desulfurization processes can be
classified as:
- Throwaway or Regenerative, depending upon whether the recovered sulfur
is discarded or recycled.
- Wet or Dry, depending upon whether the scrubber is a liquid or a solid.

Flue Gas Desulfurization Processes
The major flue gas desulfurization ( FGD ), processes are :
- Limestone Scrubbing
- Lime Scrubbing
- Dual Alkali Processes
- Lime Spray Drying
- Wellman-Lord Process
Limestone Scrubbing
Limestone slurry is sprayed on the
incoming flue gas. The sulfur dioxide gets
absorbed The limestone and the sulfur
dioxide react as follows :
CaCO
3
+ H
2
O + 2SO
2
----> Ca
+2
+ 2HSO
3
-
+ CO
2

CaCO
3
+ 2HSO
3
-
+ Ca
+2
----> 2CaSO
3 +
CO
2
+ H
2
O

Lime Scrubbing
The equipment and the processes are similar to those
in limestone scrubbing Lime Scrubbing offers better
utilization of the reagent. The operation is more
flexible. The major disadvantage is the high cost of
lime compared to limestone.
The reactions occurring during lime scrubbing are :
CaO + H
2
O -----> Ca(OH)
2

SO
2
+ H
2
O <----> H
2
SO
3

H
2
SO
3 +
Ca(OH)
2
-----> CaSO
3
.2 H
2
O
CaSO
3
.2 H
2
O + (1/2)O
2
-----> CaSO
4
.2 H
2
O
Dual Alkali System
- Lime and Limestone scrubbing lead to deposits inside spray tower.
- The deposits can lead to plugging of the nozzles through which the
scrubbing slurry is sprayed.
- The Dual Alkali system uses two regents to remove the sulfur
dioxide.
- Sodium sulfite / Sodium hydroxide are used for the absorption of
sulfur dioxide inside the spray chamber.
- The resulting sodium salts are soluble in water, so no deposits are
formed.
- The spray water is treated with lime or limestone, along with make-
up sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate.
- The sulfite / sulfate ions are precipitated, and the sodium hydroxide
is regenerated.

Lime Spray Drying
Lime Slurry is sprayed into the chamber

The sulfur dioxide is absorbed by the slurry

The liquid-to-gas ratio is maintained such that the spray dries
before it reaches the bottom of the chamber

The dry solids are carried out with the gas, and are collected
in fabric filtration unit

This system needs lower maintenance, lower capital costs,
and lower energy usage
Wellman Lord Process
This process consists of the following
subprocesses:
- Flue gas pre-treatment.
- Sulfur dioxide absorption by sodium sulfite
- Purge treatment
- Sodium sulfite regeneration.
- The concentrated sulfur dioxide stream is processed to a
marketable product.
The flue gas is pre - treated to remove the particulate. The sodium
sulfite neutralizes the sulfur dioxide :
Na
2
SO
3
+ SO
2
+ H
2
O -----> 2NaHSO
3


Wellman Lord Process (contd.)
Some of the Na
2
SO
3
reacts with O
2
and the SO
3
present in the flue
gas to form Na
2
SO
4
and NaHSO
3
.


Sodium sulfate does not help in the removal of sulfur dioxide, and is
removed. Part of the bisulfate stream is chilled to precipitate the
remaining bisulfate. The remaining bisulfate stream is evaporated
to release the sulfur dioxide, and regenerate the bisulfite.
Background on Nitrogen Oxides
There are seven known oxides of nitrogen :
- NO
- NO
2

- NO
3

- N
2
O
- N
2
O
3

- N
2
O
4

- N
2
O
5

NO and NO
2
are the most common of the seven oxides listed
above. NOx released from stationary sources is of two types

General Methods For Control Of Nox
Emissions
NOx control can be achieved by:
- Fuel Denitrogenation
- Combustion Modification
- Modification of operating conditions
- Tail-end control equipment
- Selective Catalytic Reduction
- Selective Non - Catalytic Reduction
- Electron Beam Radiation
- Staged Combustion
Fuel Denitrogenation
o One approach of fuel denitrogenation is to remove a large part of
the nitrogen contained in the fuels. Nitrogen is removed from liquid
fuels by mixing the fuels with hydrogen gas, heating the mixture
and using a catalyst to cause nitrogen in the fuel and gaseous
hydrogen to unite. This produces ammonia and cleaner fuel.
This technology can reduce the nitrogen contained in both
naturally occurring and synthetic fuels.

Combustion Modification
Combustion control uses one of the
following strategies:
- Reduce peak temperatures of the flame zone. The methods are :
- increase the rate of flame cooling
- decrease the adiabatic flame temperature by dilution
- Reduce residence time in the flame zone. For this we,
- change the shape of the flame zone
- Reduce Oxygen concentration in the flame one. This can be
accomplished by:
- decreasing the excess air
- controlled mixing of fuel and air
- using a fuel rich primary flame zone

Modification Of Operating Conditions
The operating conditions can be modified to
achieve significant reductions in the rate of
thermal NOx production. the various methods
are:
- Low-excess firing
- Off-stoichiometric combustion ( staged combustion )
- Flue gas recirculation
- Reduced air preheat
- Reduced firing rates
- Water Injection

Tail-end Control Processes
o Combustion modification and modification of operating
conditions provide significant reductions in NOx, but not
enough to meet regulations.
- For further reduction in emissions, tail-end control equipment is
required.
- Some of the control processes are:
- Selective Catalytic Reduction
- Selective Non-catalytic Reduction
- Electron Beam Radiation
- Staged Combustion

Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR)
- In this process, the nitrogen oxides in the flue gases are reduced to
nitrogen
- During this process, only the NOx species are reduced
- NH
3
is used as a reducing gas
- The catalyst is a combination of titanium and vanadium oxides. The
reactions are given below :
4 NO + 4 NH
3
+ O
2
-----> 4N
2
+ 6H
2
O
2NO
2
+ 4 NH
3
+ O
2
-----> 3N
2
+ 6H
2
O
- Selective catalytic reduction catalyst is best at around 300 to 400
o
C.
- Typical efficiencies are around 80 %

Electron Beam Radiation
- Irradiation of flue gases containing NOx or SOx
produce nitrate and sulfate ions.
- The addition of water and ammonia produces NH
4
NO
3
,
and (NH
4
)
2
SO
4

- The solids are removed from the gas, and are sold as
fertilizers.
Staged Combustion
PRINCIPLE
- Initially, less air is supplied to bring about incomplete
combustion
- Nitrogen is not oxidized. Carbon particles and CO are released.
- In the second stage, more air is supplied to complete the
combustion of carbon and carbon monoxide.
30% to 50% reductions in NOx emissions are achieved.




CARBON MONOXIDE CONTROL

Formation Of Carbon Monoxide
- Due to insufficient oxygen
- Factors affecting Carbon monoxide
formation:
- Fuel-air ratio
- Degree of mixing
- Temperature
General Methods For Control of CO
Emissions
- Control carbon monoxide formation.
Note : CO & NOx control strategies are in conflict.
- Stationary Sources
- Proper Design
- Installation
- Operation
- Maintenance
- Process Industries
- Burn in furnaces or waste heat boilers.







CONTROL OF MERCURY EMISSIONS

Mercury Emissions
Mercury exists in trace amounts in
Fossil fuels such as Coal, Oil, and Natural Gas
Vegetation
Waste products
Mercury is released to the atmosphere through
combustion or natural processes
It creates both human and environmental risks
Fish consumption is the primary pathway for human
and wildlife exposure
United states is the first country in the world to
regulate mercury emissions from coal-fired power
plants (March 15, 2005).
Source: Seingeur, 2004 and Mason and Sheu, 2002.
Source: Presentation by J. Pacyna and J. Munthe at mercury workshop in Brussels,
March 29-30, 2004
Types of Sources
Worldwide Distribution of Emissions
Control Technologies for Mercury
Emissions
Currently installed control devices for SO
2
, NO
X
,

and particulates, in a
power plant, remove some of the mercury before releasing from the
stack

Activated Carbon Injection:
Particles of activated carbon are injected into the exit gas flow, downstream
of the boiler. The mercury attaches to the carbon particles and is removed in
a particle control device

Thief process for the removal of mercury from flue gas:
It is a process which extracts partially burned coal from a pulverized coal-
fired combustor using a suction pipe, or "thief," and injects the resulting
sorbent into the flue gas to capture the mercury.
Control Techniques For VOCs

The dominant source of VOC emissions is the vaporization of
organic compounds used in industrial processes.

A variety of techniques can be used to reduce VOC emissions.

Using material containing an inherently low quantity of VOC
compounds will reduce the release of VOCs.

Also, the processes can be redesigned to reduce the quantities
that are lost as fugitive emissions.



When these techniques are inapplicable or insufficient,
add-on control systems, such as the techniques listed
below, can be used:

Thermal oxidation

Catalytic oxidation

Adsorption

Condensation and refrigeration

Biological oxidation

Thermal Oxidation
In a thermal oxidizer, the VOC-laden air stream is
heated to gas temperatures several hundred degrees
Fahrenheit above the autoignition temperatures of
the organic compounds that need to be oxidized.

Due to these very high temperatures, thermal
oxidizers have refractory-lined combustion chambers
(also called fume incinerators), which increase their
weight and size considerably.

A sketch of a thermal oxidizer is shown in Figure 1.
The VOC-laden gas stream is held at this temperature
for residence times ranging from a fraction of a
second to more than two seconds.

Temperatures of the exhaust gas from the refractory-
lined combustion chambers are often 1,000 to
2,000F.


Thermal oxidizers usually provide VOC destruction
efficiencies that exceed 95% and often exceed 99%.

One of the main limitations of thermal oxidizers is the
large amount of fuel required to heat the gas stream to the
temperature necessary for high-efficiency VOC
destruction.

Heat exchangers are used to recover some of this heat.

The heat exchanger shown in Figure 1 is sometimes called
a recuperative heat exchanger.

This type of heat exchanger has a heat recovery efficiency
ranging from 30 to 60% depending on the size of the unit.

Some types of thermal oxidizers use large regenerative
beds for heat exchange.

These beds have heat recovery efficiencies up to 95%.

Due to the amount of heat that can be recovered and
returned to the inlet gas stream,

these units, termed regenerative thermal oxidizers (RTOs)
require less fuel to maintain the combustion chamber at
the necessary temperature.
Thermal oxidizers have the broadest applicability of all the
VOC control devices.

They can be used for almost any VOC compound.

Thermal oxidizers can also be used for gas streams having
VOC concentrations at the very low concentration range of
less than 10 ppm up to the very high concentrations
approaching 10,000 ppm.

Thermal oxidizers are rarely used on gas streams having
VOC concentrations exceeding approximately 25% of the
lower explosive limit (LEL).
This limit is imposed by safety constraints due to the possibility
that a short-term concentration spike would exceed the LEL, and
the gas stream would explode.

The 25% LEL limit depends on the actual gas constituents
and usually is in the 10,000 to 20,000 ppm range.

Thermal oxidizers handling VOC materials that contain
chlorine, fluorine, or bromine atoms generate HCl, Cl2, HF,
and HBr as additional reaction products during oxidation.

A gaseous absorber (scrubber) is used as part of the air
pollution control system to collect these contaminants
prior to gas stream release to the atmosphere.
Catalytic Oxidation
Catalytic oxidizers operate at substantially lower temperatures
than thermal oxidizers.

Due to the presence of the catalyst, oxidation reactions can be
performed at temperatures in the range of 500 to 1000F.

Common types of catalysts include noble metals (i.e. platinum
and palladium) and ceramic materials.

VOC destruction by catalytic oxidizers usually exceeds 95% and
often exceeds 99%.

A sketch of a catalytic oxidizer is shown in Figure 2.
Due to the relatively low gas temperatures in the
combustion chamber, there is no need for a refractory
lining to protect the oxidizer shell.


This minimizes the overall weight of catalytic oxidizers and
provides an option for mounting the units on roofs close to
the point of VOC generation.


This placement can reduce the overall cost of the system by
limiting the distance the VOC-laden stream must be
transported in ductwork.
Catalytic oxidizers are also applicable to a wide range of
VOC-laden streams;

however, they cannot be used on sources that also
generate small quantities of catalyst poisons.

Catalyst poisons are compounds that react chemically in an
irreversible manner with the catalyst.

Common catalyst poisons include phosphorus, tin, and
zinc.

Another potential operating problem associated with
catalytic oxidizers is their vulnerability to chemicals and/or
particulate matter that masks or fouls the surface of the
catalyst.

(Masking is the reversible reaction of a chemical with the
catalyst and fouling is the coating of the catalyst with a
deposited material.)

If the conditions are potentially severe, catalytic units are
not installed.

As with thermal oxidizers, catalytic oxidizers should not
exceed 25% of the LEL, a value that is often equivalent to a
VOC concentration of 10,000 to 20,000 ppm.

Adsorption
Adsorption systems beds are generally used in the
following two quite different situations:

1- When the VOC-laden gas stream only contains one to three
organic solvent compounds, and it is economical to recover
and reuse these compounds, or

2- When the VOC-laden gas stream contains a large number
of organic compounds at low concentration, and it is
necessary to preconcentrate these organics prior to
thermal or catalytic oxidation.

A flowchart for a multi-bed adsorber system used for
collection and recovery of organic solvent
compounds is shown in Figure 3.
The VOC-laden gas is often cooled prior to entry into the
adsorption system because the effectiveness of adsorption
improves at cold temperatures.

As the gas stream passes through the bed, the organic
compounds adsorb weakly onto the surfaces of the
activated carbon, zeolite, or organic polymer used as the
adsorbent.

Essentially all of the commercially used adsorbents have a
very high surface area per gram of material.

When the adsorbent is approaching saturation with organic
vapor, a bed is isolated from the gas stream and desorbed.
Low-pressure steam or hot nitrogen gas is often used to
remove the weakly adsorbed organics.


The concentrated stream from the desorption cycle is
treated to recover the organic compounds.


After desorption, the adsorption bed is returned to service,
and another bed in the system is isolated and desorbed.

An adsorption system used for preconcentration is smaller
than a system similar to the one in Figure 3 for solvent
recovery.

In preconcentrator systems, the VOC-laden stream passes
through a rotary wheel containing zeolite or carbon-based
adsorbents.

Approximately 75-90% of the wheel is in adsorption service
while the remaining portion of the adsorbent passes
through an area where the organics are desorbed into a
very small, moderately hot gas stream.

The concentrated organic vapors are then transported to a
thermal or catalytic oxidizer for destruction.

The preconcentration step substantially reduces the fuel
requirements for the thermal or catalytic oxidizer.

Adsorption systems (in general) are usually limited to
sources generating organic compounds having a molecular
weight of more than 50 and less than approximately 200.


The low molecular weight organics usually do not adsorb
sufficiently.


The high molecular weight compounds adsorb so strongly
that is it is difficult to remove these materials from the
adsorbent during the desorption cycle.

These molecular weights are provided as a guideline and
the suitability of an adsorption system for a particular
situation should be considered on a case-by-case basis.


Adsorption systems can be used for a wide range of VOC
concentrations from less than 10 ppm to approximately
10,000 ppm.


The upper concentration limit is due to the potential
explosion hazards when the total VOC concentration
exceeds 25% of the LEL.

Adsorption systems are not recommended for gas
streams that contain particulate matter and/or high
moisture concentrations, because the particulate
matter and moisture compete with the gaseous
pollutants for pore space on the adsorbent material.

The adsorption removal efficiency usually exceeds
95% and is often in the 98% to 99% range for both
solvent recovery and preconcentrator type systems.

In both types of units, the removal efficiency
increases with reduced gas temperatures.
Condensation, Refrigeration, and Cryogenics
Condensation, refrigeration, and cryogenic systems
remove organic vapor by making them condense on cold
surfaces.

These cold conditions can be created by passing cold water
through an indirect heat exchanger, by spraying cold liquid
into an open chamber with the gas stream,

- by using a freon-based refrigerant to create very cold coils,
or by injecting cryogenic gases such as liquid nitrogen into
the gas stream.

The concentration of VOCs is reduced to the level
equivalent to the vapor pressures of the compounds at the
operating temperature.

Condensation and refrigeration systems are usually used
on high concentration, low gas flow rate sources.

Typical applications include gasoline loading terminals and
chemical reaction vessels.

The removal efficiencies attainable with this approach
depend strongly on the outlet gas temperature

For cold-water-based condensation systems, the outlet gas
temperature is usually in the 40 to 50F range,

- and the VOC removal efficiencies are in the 90 to 99% range
depending on the vapor pressures of the specific
compounds.

For refrigerant and cryogenic systems, the removal
efficiencies can be considerably above 99%,

- due to the extremely low vapor pressures of essentially all
VOC compounds at the very low operating temperatures of
-70F to less than -200F.
Condensation, refrigeration, and cryogenic systems
are usually used on gas streams that contain only
VOC compounds.

High particulate concentrations are rare in the types
of applications that can usually apply this type of
VOC control system.

However, if particulate matter is present, it could
accumulate on heat exchange surfaces and reduce
heat transfer efficiency.
Biological Oxidation
Biological systems are a relatively new control device in the
air pollution control field.

VOCs can be removed by forcing them to absorb into an
aqueous liquid or moist media inoculated with
microorganisms that consume the dissolved and/or
adsorbed organic compounds.

The control systems usually consist of an irrigated packed
bed that hosts the microorganisms (biofilters).

A presaturator is often placed ahead of the biological
system to increase the gas stream relative humidity to more
than 95%.
The gas stream temperatures are maintained at less than
approximately 105F to avoid harming the organisms and to
prevent excessive moisture loss from the media.

Biological oxidation systems are used primarily for very low
concentration VOC-laden streams.

The VOC inlet concentrations are often less than 500 ppm and
sometimes less than 100 ppm.

The overall VOC destruction efficiencies are often
above 95%.

Biological oxidation systems are used for a wide
variety of organic compounds; however, there are
certain materials that are toxic to the organisms.


In these cases, an alternative type of VOC control
system is needed.

General Applicability of VOC Control Systems
Figures 5 and 6 summarize the general applicability of VOC
control systems.

These two charts apply to gas streams having total VOC
concentrations less than approximately 25% of the LEL.

If the concentrations are above this value, units such as
flares (not discussed) are used for control.

Control system applicability has been divided into two
separate groups: low VOC concentration and high VOC
concentration.
There is no generally accepted distinction between these
two groups.


For the purposes of Basic Concepts in Environmental
Sciences, total VOC concentrations less than 500 ppm are
considered low.


The low concentration group is further divided into three
main categories depending on the number of different VOC
compounds in the gas stream and the value of recovering
these compounds for re-use.
If there are a large number of separate VOC compounds, it
is usually not economically feasible to recover and reuse
the captured organics.

In this case, thermal or catalytic oxidizers are used to
oxidize the VOC compounds.

Adsorbers can also be used as independent control systems
or as preconcentrators for the oxidizers.

If there are a very limited number of VOC compounds (less
than or equal to 3), it is usually possible to use either
adsorbers or biological oxidation systems
It is necessary to confirm that the compounds can be
desorbed from regenerative-type adsorbers and that the
specific organics are not toxic to the microorganisms in
biological oxidation systems.

Both thermal and catalytic oxidizers can also be used for
these types of gas streams.

If recovery and reuse are necessary, an adsorber system is
generally used as the control technique.

Due to the low VOC concentrations, the cost of organic
compound recovery can be quite high.