Fallacies of Presumption, Ambiguity, and Grammatical Analogy

Brian A. Ray Abraham Baldwin Agricultural College

Fallacies of Presumption: Overview

Begging the Question Complex Question Non Sequitur Does Not Follow False Dichotomy Suppressed Evidence Equivocation Amphiboly Composition Division

Brian A. Ray Abraham Baldwin Agricultural College

Begging the Question: Definition

This fallacy occurs when an arguer uses some form of phraseology to conceal a key premise that may be unsupported by argument.

Brian A. Ray Abraham Baldwin Agricultural College

Begging the Question: Examples

Murder is morally wrong. This being the case, it follows that abortion is morally wrong.

Comment: Ignores the fact that the argument doesnt prove that abortion is murder, which is the real point of controversy.

Brian A. Ray Abraham Baldwin Agricultural College

Complex Question: Definition

This fallacy occurs when a single question that is really two (or more) questions is asked and a single answer is then applied to both questions

Brian A. Ray Abraham Baldwin Agricultural College

Complex Question: Examples

Do you still beat your wife?

Comment: However you answer this question, it commits you to saying that you engaged in this behavior in the past.

Have you stopped cheating on exams?

Comment: Supposes that you have cheated in the past.

Brian A. Ray Abraham Baldwin Agricultural College

Non Sequitur Does Not Follow: Definition

This fallacy occurs when the arguer attempts to link two or more ideas that are not logically related as if they are connected or causative.

Brian A. Ray Abraham Baldwin Agricultural College

Non Sequitur Does Not Follow: Examples

If Americans can send a man to the moon, then we can cure cancer and defeat AIDS.

Comment: The technology and knowledge required to send men to the moon is distinctly different from that needed to cure cancer and AIDS.

Brian A. Ray Abraham Baldwin Agricultural College

False Dichotomy: Definition

This fallacy occurs when the arguer assumes there are only two alternatives when in fact there are more than two. This is often referred to as the either or fallacy.

Brian A. Ray Abraham Baldwin Agricultural College

False Dichotomy: Example

Either you buy only American-made products or you dont deserve to be called a loyal America. Yesterday you bought a new Toyota. Its clear you dont deserve to be called a loyal American.

Comment: The person may still be a very loyal citizen.

Brian A. Ray Abraham Baldwin Agricultural College

Suppressed Evidence: Definition

Occurs in inductive arguments that ignore some important piece of evidence that outweighs the presented evidence and entails a very different conclusion. Difficult to detect because you must know about the details of the case.

Brian A. Ray Abraham Baldwin Agricultural College

Suppressed Evidence: Example

Used car salesman: This car is a great value. Its clean and has low mileage.

Comment: The salesman may not be telling you that the car had been in a serious crash.

Brian A. Ray Abraham Baldwin Agricultural College

Equivocation: Definition

Occurs when the conclusion of an argument depends on the fact that a word or phrase is used, either explicitly or implicitly, in two different senses in the argument. Such arguments are either invalid or have a false premise.

Brian A. Ray Abraham Baldwin Agricultural College

Equivocation: Example

Some triangles are obtuse. Whatever is obtuse is ignorant, so some triangles are ignorant.

Comment: Obtuse is used in two ways:

Greater than 90 degrees Not smart

Brian A. Ray Abraham Baldwin Agricultural College

Amphiboly: Definition

Occurs when the arguer misinterprets a statement that is syntactically or grammatically ambiguous and proceeds to draw a conclusion based on this faulty interpretation. Its important to keep in mind that it is the faulty conclusion that is the fallacy, not the misplaced/ambiguous statement.

Brian A. Ray Abraham Baldwin Agricultural College

Amphiboly: Example

Professor Johnson said that he will give a lecture about heart failure in the biology lecture hall. It must be the case that a number of heart failures have occurred there recently.

Comment: The phrase in the biology lecture hall should be placed immediately after lecture instead of heart failure.

Brian A. Ray Abraham Baldwin Agricultural College

Composition: Definition

This fallacy occurs when the conclusion of an argument depends on the erroneous transference of an attribute from the part of something to the whole.

Brian A. Ray Abraham Baldwin Agricultural College

Composition: Example

Each sentence in this composition is wellwritten. Therefore, the whole essay is wellwritten.

Comment: It doesnt follow from the fact that each individual sentence is well written that the whole essay is well written.

Brian A. Ray Abraham Baldwin Agricultural College

Division: Definition

Occurs when the conclusion of an argument depends on the erroneous transference of an attribute from a whole (or a class) onto its parts (or members).

Brian A. Ray Abraham Baldwin Agricultural College

Division: Example

America is a wealthy country. Bill Smith is an American; therefore, he is wealthy.

Comment: Even though it is true that the country as a whole is wealthy, it doesnt follow that each individual in the country is a wealthy individual.

Brian A. Ray Abraham Baldwin Agricultural College

Fallacies of Presumption: Review

Begging the Question Complex Question Non Sequitur Does Not Follow False Dichotomy Suppressed Evidence Equivocation Amphiboly Composition Division

Brian A. Ray Abraham Baldwin Agricultural College