Mineral Resources

Rocks and Minerals

Rock
Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic

Ore
High-grade ore Low-grade ore

Rock cycle

Nonrenewable Mineral Resources

Earth crust = Minerals + rock Minerals inorganic compound that occurs naturally in the earths crust
Solid Regular internal crystalline structure.

Rock solid combination of 1 or more minerals.

 Mineral Resource: Any mineral useful to humans

Metallic Minerals: Iron Oxide, Gold Non-metallic mineral: Limestone, sand Fossil Fuel; Coal, Petroleum

Ore: A rock that can be profitably mined for a mineral (often a metal) or for minerals (metals)
High Grade Ore; has high concentration of the mineral Low Grade Ore: smaller concentration

Minerals other than ore present in a rock

What Are Minerals and Rocks and How Are Rocks Recycled?
Some naturally occurring materials in the earths crust can be extracted and processed into useful materials.
Igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks in the earths crust are recycled very slowly by geologic processes.

The Rock Cycle

What Are the Harmful Environmental Effects of Using Mineral Resources?

Extracting and using mineral resources can;
disturb the land, erode soils, produce large amounts of solid waste, and pollute the air, water, and soil.

Life Cycle of a Metal Resource

Surface mining

Metal ore

Separation of ore from gangue

Smelting

Melting metal Recycling

Conversion to product

Discarding of product

Smelting heating to release metals but creating air polluting byproducts Chemical removal processes such as using cyanide to remove gold can create Toxic holding ponds

Geochemically Abundant Elements (GAE)

Elements comprise > 0.1% (by weight) of the crust Form as principal component in minerals within common rocks i.e. iron (Fe) Fe2O3 Form very large deposits Form rock deposits

Geochemically Scarce Elements (GSE)

Elements that comprise < 0.1% (by weight) of the crust Do not form as principal component in minerals within common rocks, usually occur as a substitute in rock forming minerals Form small deposits Ore minerals include sulfides, native elements, etc.

Mineral Deposits
Elements need to be concentrated Minimum Grade - minimum amount of element necessary to economically mine element Minimum Concentration Factor (MCF) Minimum Grade divided by the Crustal Abundance
GAE have MCF < 100 GSE have MCF > 100

Process that concentrate elements

Igneous Processes
Hydrothermal Magmatic

Sedimentary Processes
Mechanical Chemical

Metamorphism Processes Groundwater Processes

Igneous Ore Deposits

Igneous rocks, especially those that formed from magmas that cooled below the surface, can contain a variety of valuable ores For example, platinum, gold and silver are found in igneous rock

Igneous Ore Deposits

As a magma cools, it can concentrate minerals After they have crystallized, lighter minerals may rise to the top of the magma chamber, while heavier may sink to the bottom For example, a dense mineral like chromite, (Fe, Mg)Cr2O4, concentrates on the bottom of the magma chamber

Igneous Ore Deposits

Igneous ore deposits may be especially valuable if the rocks are coarse-grained, so that the minerals of interest are more easily removed

Pegmatite is the term used to describe coarsegrained intrusions

Igneous Ore Deposits

Feldspars, which are used in ceramics, are the most common silicate rock in the crust and are commonly found as pegmatites Gemstones, such as beryl, aquamarine, tourmaline, ruby, and emerald, are very rare and are found as pegmatites

Hydrothermal Processes
Precipitation of metallic ions from hot, ion-rich fluid Fluid could be
Magmatic Groundwater Oceanic water

Magmas heat up the water Water flows into fractures, faults, joints, etc. where it cools and precipitates (deposits) the metals

Plate Tectonic Boundaries

Hydrothermal vents are found all along the mid-oceanic ridges These vents are nicknamed black smokers for the dark clouds of sulfide minerals issuing from them, which create metal-rich muds on the seafloor

Hydrothermal Ore Deposits

Not all minerals deposits related to igneous activity occur within igneous rock bodies Magmas have water and other fluids dissolved in or associated with them During the later stages of crystallization, the fluids may escape from the cooling magma chamber, by seeping through cracks and pores in the surrounding rock (called the country rock)

These fluids carry with them dissolved salts, gases and metals

Hydrothermal Ore Deposits

These warm fluids can leach additional metals from the rocks through which they pass

In time, the fluids cool and deposit their dissolved minerals, creating a hydrothermal ore deposit (which can be obvious veins cutting through the country rock)

Hydrothermal Ore Deposits

The particular minerals deposited vary with the composition of the hydrothermal fluids and the country rock Many metals are found in hydrothermal ores, such as copper, lead, zinc, gold, platinum, silver and uranium Since sulfur is common in magmatic fluids, many of the minerals created are sulfides, such as galena (PbS) and sphalerite (ZnS)

Magmatic Processes
Gravity Settling
Dense, early-crystallizing minerals sink to the bottom of the magma chamber

Filter Pressing
Tectonic force compress a magma chamber and force the still-liquid portion into fractures, creating large crystals

These processes have produced large bodies of iron, chromium, titanium, and nickel

Sedimentary Processes
Clastic
Weathering of rock also weathers out elements of interest Generally, the elements are heavy and are deposited when a streams competence is low. Placer deposits, i.e. gold

Placer Gold

Sedimentary Processes
Chemical Precipitates
Water with high concentrations of elements is evaporated Evaporation of water leaves the elements Ex. Salts, Iron, etc.

Sedimentary Ore Deposits

Sedimentary ore deposits are typically created by chemical deposition Limestone and dolomite are classic example of sedimentary rocks that are mined for use as building materials, as the major ingredient in concrete and as aggregate (gravel) for roads Evaporites are sedimentary mineral deposits that form when a body of seawater trapped in a shallow sea or lagoon dries up (evaporates) This includes table salt and gypsum

Sedimentary Ore Deposits

One very special type of sedimentary ore deposit are the banded iron formations, which are the largest source of iron on Earth

The structures consist of repeated thin layers of iron oxides, either magnetite or hematite, alternating with bands of iron-poor shale and chert
These deposits can run for tens of kilometers

Sedimentary Ore Deposits

The banded iron formations are only found in a very few places on Earth and only in very old sedimentary rocks, typically 2 billion years old

Sedimentary Ore Deposits

Their formation is thought to be related to the development of the Earths atmosphere The early Earth did not have oxygen in its atmosphere, therefore any iron could not weather into iron oxide (i.e., rust)

In the primordial oceans, when photosynthetic organisms began producing oxygen, the oxygen reacted with the iron dissolved in the seawater and cause it to precipitate onto the seafloor

Metamorphism
Alteration of rock concentrates the elements The heat and pressure force out the GSE (impurities)

Low-temperature Deposits
Streams and weathering can concentrate mineral deposits Weathering alone can produce useful ores by leaching away unwanted minerals, leaving a residue enriched with metals of value

The aluminum ore, bauxite, is created when lateritic soils are very heavily leached by rainfall, leaving behind the insoluble aluminum minerals

Low-temperature Deposits
Minerals weathered out of rocks, can be carried as sediment or pushed along the streambed by the current Dense, weathering-resistant minerals, such as gold and diamonds, will concentrate in the streambed Such deposits, mechanically concentrated by water, are called placers

Metamorphic Ore Deposits

The mineralogical changes caused by the heat or pressure of metamorphism also can produce economic mineral deposits

Graphite, a mineral composed solely of carbon, is used in lead pencils, in batteries, as a lubricant and many application where its high melting point are of use
Marble is a very popular building material because of the beautiful figure in the stone

Weathering
Chemical weathering removes soluble material. Ore material (elements of interest) are left behind in a concentrated residue.

Groundwater
Secondary enrichment Groundwater dissolves and carries elements in solution Chemical conditions change and the elements are precipitated (deposited) out. Ex. Lead

Groundwater
Secondary enrichment Groundwater dissolves and carries insignificant elements in solution Insoluble elements of interest remain. Ex. Aluminum

Ore Mineral
Ability to separate and readily process the metal (element) from the ore material. Need to look at
The energy to process the material The cost to process the material The value of the metal

Basically, is it profitable to mine the metal?

Plate Tectonics and Resources

Impact of Mining Activities

Virtually everything we use or build or create in modern life involves rock, mineral and fuel resources taken from the Earth

That remaining 0.3% contains a staggering number of rocks and minerals that are useful to modern society, but only occur in very limited quantities in nature In fact, many resources are extremely rare...

Extracting Mineral Deposits

Surface mining
Subsurface mining Overburden Spoils

Mining Methods
Open-pit mining

Strip mining
Area strip mining Contour strip mining Mountaintop removal

Extracting Mineral Deposits

Surface mining - shallow deposits in US extracts 90% of non-fuel minerals and rocks and 60% of the coal.
Overburden soil and rock overlying deposit. Spoils discarded overburden
Open-pit Mining
Area Strip Mining

Mountaintop Removal

Figure 15-

Extracting Mineral Deposits

Subsurface mining - deposits that are too deep for surface mining
Disturbs less produces less waste but also less effective and dangerous.

Underground Mines
Generally less disruptive than surface mines Tunnels closely follow the ore body Some waste rock on the surface Shallow abandoned mines can cause collapse

Open-pit Mining

Strip Mining

Contour Strip Mining

Mountaintop Mining

Harmful Environmental Effects of Mining

Disruption of land surface
Subsidence Toxic-laced mining wastes

Acid mine drainage

Air pollution

Harmful Environmental Effects of Removing Metals from Ores

Ore mineral desired metal
Gangue waste material Smelting
Air polluting by-products

Chemical removal processes

Sources of Metal Pollution

Mining
Air Water Land

Fossil Fuel Combustion

Air Water Land

Other sources Natural Sources

Harmful Environmental Effects of Mining

Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) Heavy Metal Contamination Processing chemical pollution Erosion and Sedimentation

Environmental Effects of Using Mineral and Energy Resources

Some Important Minerals and there Uses

Galena [PbS] source of lead car batteries Magnetite, Hematite [FexOy] iron ore Bauxite [Al2O3*2H2O] aluminum ore Chalcopyrite [CuFeS2] copper ore Quartz [SiO2] glass and electronic components Gypsum [CaSO4*2H2O] sheetrock, plater of paris Sphalerite [ZnS] zinc ore Calcite [CaCO3] portland cement, soil conditioner, antacids Garnet [Al2(SiO4)3+other metals] abrasives Olivine [(Fe,Mg)2SiO4] silicon chips for computers Sulfur [S] insecticides, rubber tires, paints, papermaking, etc. Halite [NaCl] Table salt Graphite [C] lubricant, pencil lead Feldspars [K,Ca,Na,Al, silicates] porcelain, source of K Any other element that is not a major component of a mineral Gold [Au], Silver [Ag], Platinum [Pt], Titanium [ Ti], Tin [Sn], etc.

Fig. 12-14, p. 275

How Can We Use Mineral Resources More Sustainably?

We can try to find substitutes for scarce resources, recycle and reuse minerals, reduce resource waste, and convert the wastes from some businesses into raw materials for other businesses.

Local farmers

Sludge
Pharmaceutical plant Greenhouses Waste heat Waste heat Waste heat Sludge

Waste heat
Fish farming

Oil refinery Surplus Electric power plant natural gas Fly ash Surplus Waste sulfur calcium Surplus Waste sulfate natural gas heat

Cement manufacturer

Stepped Art

Sulfuric acid producer

Wallboard factory

Area homes