STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE

Chandra S. Amaravadi

IN THIS PRESENTATION
Codds rules for relational systems Types of SQL DDL and DML Examples

CODDS RULES AND TYPES OF SQL

CODDS RULES FOR RDBMSs

Codd has written a paper in which he outlined the rules for relational systems. These are as follows: Information representation Guaranteed access Systematic treatment of nulls Dynamic on-line catalog Comprehensive data sub-language View updating

Note: Codd was a research fellow at IBM in the 70s

CODDS RULES FOR RDBMSs..

High-level insert, update and delete Physical data independence Logical data independence Integrity independence Distribution independence Non-subversion

CODDS RULES FOR RDBMSs

Information representation -- all information should be represented as atomic values in tables. Guaranteed access -given a row and column name we should be able to access values in the table. Treatment of nulls -nulls should be treated the same way throughout the database. Null should mean not applicable Online catalog -the system catalog (data dictionary) should be online and accessible by the system. Comp. data lang. -there should be a language for data definition and data manipulation. View updating -the system must be able to automatically update views based on a base table.

CODDS RULES FOR RDBMSs

High level insertion, update.. -insertion, deletion and update should operate on a table. Physical data independence -- should be able to change internal storage structures without affecting application programs. Logical data independence -- should be able to change logical scheama without affecting application programs. Integrity independence -- integrity controls must be independent of appln. prog. Distribution independence -the users/appln. programs should not be affected by where the data is physically stored. Non subversion -- should not be able to bypass integrity rules by using the data sub language.

STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE

Structured Query Language originated from SEQEL (early 1980s). SQL (is/was): based on relational calculus (uses select, project, join etc.) standardized in 82,95, 05 Embedded SQL a standard in 89 Two major types and three other types DDL, DML SQL/T, SQL/I, SQL/AU (DCL) Embedded SQL

STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE

There are five types of SQL as follows:
DDL - Creating / modifying tables, views and indexes DML - Retrieving / inserting / updating information SQL/T - Transaction boundaries
SQL/I - Integrity constraints

SQL/AU. - Authorization (also called DCL)

DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE

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DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE

DDL is the language used to define/modify the database Schema. Create/Open Database (not discussed) Create/Alter/Drop Table Create/Drop View Create/Drop Index

Create Database Employee;

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DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE..

TYPICAL FORMAT

Action DatabaseComponent ComponentName Create Table Cust. Drop View Emp. Index
Alter Table Emp.

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DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE..

Command used to create tables

CREATE TABLE Table name (attribute attr. type, attribute attr.type..) [CONSTRAINT Constr name TYPE attr];
Command used to change attributes in tables

ALTER TABLE Table name ADD attr. attr. type, attr. attr. type;
Command used to delete table definitions

DROP TABLE Table name ;

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CREATE TABLE
Creates a table (schema)
Dept. d_no d_name d_mgr_ssn d_phone

CREATE TABLE DEPT. ( d_no d_name d_mgr_SSN d_phone

Integer, VarChar(15), Char(9), Char(12));

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ALTER, DROP TABLE

Alter table adds attributes; Drop table drops the entire table.

Dept. d_no d_name d_mgr_ssn d_phone no_of_emp

ALTER TABLE DEPT. ADD no_of_emp Integer; DROP TABLE Dept.;

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CREATE VIEW
Command used to create VIEWS

CREATE VIEW Viewname AS SELECT...

A view is the way a user looks at the data. Views are subsets of the data in the database. A view could include data from more than one table. All application programs access data via views. Views provide logical data independence. Reports can be created from views (as well as from tables)

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CREATE VIEW..
Creates a query; AS is an alias or name Emp. e_ssn e_name e_title

Create a view of employees who are analysts

CREATE VIEW Analysts AS SELECT e_name, e_title FROM Emp. WHERE e_title = analyst;

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MORE DDL COMMANDS..

CREATE VIEW ANALYSTS.....
DROP VIEW ANALYSTS; CREATE INDEX DEPT_INDEX ON DEPT(d_no); DROP INDEX DEPT_INDEX;

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DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE

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DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE

DML is the language used to create/modify and delete data in the database.

INSERT insert a record UPDATE change values DELETE delete records SELECT choose record

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THE INSERT COMMAND..

Inserts a record into a table with name TABLENAME. FORMAT INSERT INTO TABLENAME VALUES (attr1 value, attr2 value.);

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THE INSERT COMMAND..

Insert employee record
EMP.
e_ssn e_name e_title

INSERT INTO EMP VALUES (978-98-9878, Sullivan, developer);

e_ssn 978-98-9878 e_name Sullivan e_title developer

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THE UPDATE COMMAND

Update employee title to analyst
EMP. e_ssn e_name e_title

UPDATE EMP /* table name */ SET e_title = analyst /* new values */ WHERE e_name = Sullivan; /* condition */ EMP.
e_ssn 978-98-9878 e_name Sullivan e_title analyst

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THE DELETE COMMAND

Delete Employee record
EMP.
e_ssn
978-98-9878

e_name
Sullivan

e_title
analyst

DELETE FROM EMP. WHERE e_name = Sullivan; EMP.

e_ssn e_name e_title

What if you were to issue, DELETE FROM EMP?

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THE SELECT STATEMENT

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THE SELECT STATEMENT

SELECT FROM [WHERE <Attribute list> <Relations> <Conditions> AND/OR <Conditions>]

[GROUP BY <Attribute list>] [HAVING <Conditions>] [ORDER BY <Attribute list> DESC/ASC];

Group by is used to organize data into groups and provide summary information. Having is used for the group condition.

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ADDITIONAL NOTES ON SELECT

Notes on the select statement
The Select part can include literals (The number of..) Some functions can be included in SELECT part or WHERE part More than one table and one condition can be specified Conditions are connected by logical operators -- and/or etc. When GROUP BY is used, the WHERE clause is not used. Instead the group condition is specified by HAVING. ORDER BY is optional and used if sorting is required.

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DISCUSSION
The output of a SELECT statement is: a) an attribute ? b) a single record ? c) table ?

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FUNCTIONS IN SQL
Operators to carry out different types of calculations Logical Arithmetic String Date
IN WHICH PART OF THE QUERY ARE FUNCTIONS USED?

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LOGICAL OPERATORS
Logical operators are generally used to carry out comparison
=, >, < >=, <= <> OR != (NOT) BETWEEN X1 AND X2 (inclusive) LIKE _ or % IN Dept. (NOT) NULL
d_name d_phone 845-9878 989-0087 787-9934 884-5768

(Select.Where D_Name like %fin%) Finance Financial Records

Finance Sales Marketing Fin. records

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LOGICAL OPERATORS..
To select employees between certain income range
Select emp#, emp name From emp Where income between 70000 and 90000;

To select customers in Macomb, Chicago or Cust. Bloomington

Select cust.cust# From cust Where cust.zip in (61455, 60601.)
cust# 1156 1157 1158 1160 zip 61455 61455 54555 60601

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BUILT-IN ARITHMETIC FUNCTIONS

Arithmetic functions are used to carry out math operations ABS ROUND TRUNC COUNT SUM AVG MAX MIN

Select count(emp_name)
Select max(emp_salary)..

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STRING FUNCTIONS
String functions are used to carry out string manipulation LENGTH(string) SUBSTR(string, start, no of ch.) LOWER UPPER
Select substr(prob_descr, 0, 10) Prob_descr = I am unable to log in

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DATE FUNCTIONS
Date functions are used to carry out date arithmetic ADD_MONTHS(1/1/00, 5) = 6/1/00 MONTHS_BETWEEN (sysdate, hiredate) NEXT_DAY(hiredate, Friday) TO_DATE(string, picture) TO_DATE(12/09/10, DY th MM, YYYY) DEC, 2010 = 9 th

Next_day(2/20/10, Friday) = 2/25/10

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SIMPLE RETRIEVALS
Select employees who are analysts EMP. e_ssn e_name e_title

SELECT e_name FROM EMP WHERE e_title = analyst;

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SIMPLE RETRIEVALS..
EMPLOYEE
e_ssn 456-34-8895 459-66-6785 467-89-8898 478-64-8005 489-12-5575 492-93-4438 467-89-8898 e_name Smith Johnson Weintraub Dickson Ferrel Rao McDonald e_title developer analyst developer manager analyst analyst manager e_salary $35,000 $27,000 $60,000 $64,000 $47,000 $71,000 $85,000

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SIMPLE RETRIEVALS..
Select employees whose name ends with son EMP. e_ssn e_name e_title

SELECT e_name FROM EMP WHERE e_name like %son

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SIMPLE RETRIEVALS..
Select employees whose name does not begin with a EMP. e_ssn e_name e_title

SELECT e_name FROM EMP WHERE e_name not like a%

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RETRIEVALS WITH AGGREGATES..

Count the number of developers EMP. e_ssn e_name e_title

SELECT COUNT(e_name) FROM EMP WHERE e_title = developer

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RETRIEVALS WITH AGGREGATES..

EMP. e_ssn e_name e_title e_salary

SELECT Average Salary=, Avg(e_salary) From EMP Where e_title = developer or e_title = analyst ; What does this query do?

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RETRIEVALS WITH EXPRESSIONS..

List the employees and their witholdings (calculated as 8% of salary). EMP.

e_ssn

e_name

e_title

e_salary

SELECT e_name, e_salary * 0.08 AS Withholdings FROM EMP

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RETRIEVALS WITH GROUP BY..

List all job titles and the number of emps in each EMP. e_ssn e_name e_title

SELECT e_title, COUNT(e_name) FROM EMP GROUP BY e_title

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GROUP BY..
EMPLOYEE
e_ssn 456-34-8895 459-66-6785 467-89-8898 478-64-8005 489-12-5575 492-93-4438 467-89-8898 e_name Smith Johnson Weintraub Dickson Ferrel Rao McDonald e_title developer analyst developer manager analyst analyst manager e_salary $35,000 $27,000 $60,000 $64,000 $47,000 $71,000 $85,000

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RETRIEVALS WITH HAVING..

List the number of employees in each job category with salary > $50,000 EMP.

e_ssn

e_name

e_title

e_salary

SELECT Number of: , e_title, =, COUNT(e_name) FROM EMP GROUP BY e_title HAVING e_salary > 50000

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RETRIEVALS WITH HAVING..

EMP.
e_ssn 456-34-8895 459-66-6785 467-89-8898 478-64-8005 489-12-5575 492-93-4438 467-89-8898 e_name Smith Johnson Weintraub Dickson Ferrel Rao McDonald e_title developer analyst developer manager analyst analyst manager e_salary $35,000 $27,000 $60,000 $64,000 $47,000 $71,000 $85,000

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RETRIEVAL FROM MULTIPLE TABLES

Sharing of information a key concept Normalization process leads to multiple tables When data is retrieved from > 1 table, need to link tables together This is done by equating FK values with PK values for each set of tables that need to be linked Emp. emp#, emp name, dept# Dept. dept#, dept name, mgr
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RETRIEVAL FROM MULTIPLE TABLES

EMP. e_ssn Dept. d_name d_no d_mgr_ssn d_phone e_name e_title

SELECT e_name, d_name FROM EMP, dept. WHERE EMP.e_ssn = dept.d_mgr_ssn

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RETRIEVAL FROM MULTIPLE TABLES..

EMPLOYEE
e_ssn 456-34-8895 459-66-6785 467-89-8898 478-64-8005 489-12-5575 492-93-4438 467-89-8898 e_name Smith Johnson Weintraub Dickson Ferrel Rao McDonald e_title developer analyst developer manager analyst analyst manager e_salary $35,000 $27,000 $60,000 $64,000 $47,000 $71,000 $85,000

DEPARTMENT
d_name Manugistics IMS Pilot InfoSec d_no 142 230 345 467 d_mgr_ssn 467-89-8898 479-99-0045 478-64-8005 898-98-0967 d_phone 845-9878 989-0087 787-9934 884-5768
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DISCUSSION
Write SQL queries for the following:
1. Create Emp table with E_SSN, E_Name, E_title as attr. -- assume data types. 2. Add E_salary to the Employee table. 3. Create an index, Ti_ndx on E_title. 4. List employees and job titles in order of title. 5. List employees other than developers. 6. Create a view hi_flier listing developers with salary > $100K. 7. Count the #. of employees who are managers.

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