1

Cell Wall

2
The Structure of the Cell Wall
• One of the most important differences between Plant
and Animal CELLS is the Presence of a CELL WALL IN
PLANT CELLS.

• Fungi such as Mushrooms and Yeast also have Cell

Walls.

• Cell Walls of Fungi are made of CHITIN.

• The cell wall is laid down during the development of a

cell and starts as a thin layer of pectin, which forms the
middle lamella.
3
The Structure of the Cell Wall
• Cellulose, secreted by the outer part of the cytoplasm, is
laid down on the inside surface of the middle lamella.

• This cellulose layer constitutes the primary wall.

• In most cell, extra layers of cellulose are laid down on

the inside surface of the primary wall, which form the
secondary wall.

• The secondary wall is usually laid down after the cell has
reached a maximum size.

4
The Structure of the Cell Wall
• Plasmodesmata and pits occur at intervals in the cell
wall.

• Plasmodesmata are fine cytoplasmic strands linking the

cytoplasm of two neighbouring cells through fine pores in
the cell wall.

• Pits arise in plases where the secondary wall is absent

altogether.

• Where pits occur, two adjacent cells are separated by

the primary wall and middle lamella.
5
 Functions of Cell Wall
• Determines or maintains the shape of
plant cells.

• Prevent the cell membrane from

bursting.

• Provides support and mechanical

strength.
6
Plasma Membrane

7
 The Structure of the Cell
Membrane
• The cell membrane (or plasma membrane) surrounds all
living cells, and is the cell's most important organelle.

• The membranes that surround the nucleus and other

organelles are almost identical to the cell membrane.

• The Cell Membrane CONTROLS the ease with which

substances pass into and out of the cell-some
substances easily cross the membrane, while others
cannot cross at all. For this reason, the Cell Membrane
is said to be SELECTIVELY PERMEABLE.

8
 The Structure of the Cell
Membrane
• Membranes are composed of
phospholipids, proteins and carbohydrates
arranged in a fluid mosaic structure, as
shown in this diagram.

9
The Structure of the Cell
Membrane

10
Phospholipids
• The phospholipids form a thin, flexible
sheet, while the proteins "float" in the
phospholipid sheet like icebergs, and the
carbohydrates extend out from the
proteins.

11
• The phospholipids are arranged in a bilayer, with their polar,
hydrophilic phosphate heads facing outwards,

• and their non-polar, hydrophobic fatty acid tails facing each

other in the middle of the bilayer.

• Cell Membranes are made mostly of PHOSPHOLIPID

MOLECULES. (Phosphate + Lipid).

• Lipid is a simple form of FAT.

• Phospholipids are a kind of Lipid that consists of TWO FATTY

ACIDS (TAILS), and PHOSPHATE GROUP (HEADS).

• A Phospholipid Molecule has a POLAR "Head" and Two

NONPOLAR "Tails".

12
• POLAR - The two ends of the Phospholipid Molecule have different
properties in Water.

• The Phosphate Head is HYDROPHILIC meaning "WATER

LOVING". Because of its hydrophilic nature, the head of a
Phospholipid will orient itself so that it is as close as possible to
water molecules.

• The Lipid Tails are HYDROPHOBIC meaning "WATER-FEARING",

the Hydrophobic tails will tend to orient themselves away from
water.
•
• This hydrophobic layer acts as a barrier to all but the smallest
molecules, effectively isolating the two sides of the membrane.

• Different kinds of membranes can contain phospholipids with

different fatty acids, affecting the strength and flexibility of the
membrane, and animal cell membranes also contain cholesterol
linking the fatty acids together and so stabilising and strengthening
the membrane.

13
Protein
• A Variety of PROTEIN MOLECULES are EMBEDDED in
the Lipid Bilayer.

• Some Proteins are Attached to the surface of the cell

membrane, these are called PERIPHERAL PROTEINS,
and are located on both the Internal and External
Surface.

• The Proteins that are Embedded in the Lipid Bilayer are

called INTEGRAL PROTEINS.

• Some Integral Proteins extend across the entire Cell

Membrane and are exposed to both the inside of the cell
and the exterior environment. Others extend only to the
inside or only to the exterior surface.

14
• There are many kinds of Proteins in membranes; they
HELP to MOVE Material INTO and OUT of the Cell.

• Some Integral Proteins form Channels or Pores through

which certain substances can pass.

• Other Proteins (carrier protein) will have a specific

binding site for the substance it transports.

• Integral Proteins exposed to the Cell's External

environment often have Carbohydrates attached to them
serve as identification badges that allow cells to
recognize each other and may act as Site where viruses
or chemical messengers such as hormones can attach.
15
Carbohydrates
• The carbohydrates are attached to the membrane
proteins or sometimes to the phospholipids.

• Proteins with carbohydrates attached are called

glycoproteins,

• While phospholipids with carbohydrates attached are

called glycolipids.

• The carbohydrates are short polysaccharides composed

of a variety of different monosaccharides, and form a cell
coat or glycocalyx outside the cell membrane.

• The glycocalyx is involved in protection and cell

recognition, and antigens such as the ABO antigens on
blood cells are usually cell-surface glycoproteins.
16
Cholesterol
• Cell membranes also contain cholesterol,
whose molecules are found in between
the phospholipids molecules.

• Important for increasing the fluidity of cell

membranes.

17
FLUID MOSAIC MODEL OF CELL
MEMBRANES
• The Lipids and Proteins of the Cell Membrane are
always in motion.

• Phospholipids are able to drift across the membrane,

changing places with their neighbor.

• Proteins in and on the membrane Form PATTERNS, or

MOSAICS.

• Because the Membrane is FLUID with a MOSAIC of

Proteins, scientists call the modern view of Membrane
Structure THE FLUID MOSAIC MODEL.

• The Pattern, or "Mosaic" of Lipids and Proteins in the

Cell Membrane is Constantly Changing. 18
19
 Function of cell membranes
• Forms boundary between the contents of the
cell and its external environment.

• Regulates the passage of substances into and

out of the cell (certain substances).

• Enables the cell to communicate with the

external environment (receptor proteins that
receive chemical messenger molecules e.g
hormones from other cells).
20
• Helps cell to maintain structural
relationships with neighbouring cells.

• Enable separate compartments to be

formed within a cell in which specific
biochemical pathways can occur.

• Allow the attachment of enzymes.

21
Organelles

22
 Cytoplasm and the cytosol
• Everything between the cell membrane and the
nucleus is the cell’s cytoplasm.

• Cytoplasm consists of two main components:

– Cytosol
– Organelles

• Cytosol is a jellylike mixture that consists mostly

of water, along with protein, carbohydrates, salt,
minerals and organic molecules.

23
 Cytoplasm and the cytosol
• Suspended in the cytosol are tiny
organelles.

• Organelles are structures that work like

miniature organs, they carry out specific
function in the cell.

• The organelles plus the cytosol makes up

the cytoplasm.
24
Nucleus

25
 The Structure of nucleus
• THE NUCLEUS (plural, Nuclei) is often the most Prominent
Structure within a Eukaryotic Cell.

• It maintains its shape with the help of a Protein skeleton known as

the NUCLEAR MATRIX.

• The Nucleus is the CONTROL CENTER (BRAIN) of the Cell.

• Most Cells have a Single Nucleus some cells have more than one.

• The nucleus is surrounded by a Double Layer Membrane called the

NUCLEAR ENVELOPE.

26
 The Structure of nucleus
• The Nuclear Envelope is covered with many small pores through
which PROTEINS and CHEMICAL MESSAGES from the Nucleus
can pass. Golf Ball like dimples (pores).

• The Nucleus contains DNA, the HEREDITARY MATERIAL OF

CELLS.

• The DNA is in the form of a long Strand called CHROMATIN.

• During Cell Division, Chromatin strands COIL and CONDENSES

into thick structures called CHROMOSOMES.

27
 The Structure of nucleus
• The Chromosomes in the nucleus contain coded
"BLUEPRINTS" that control all cellular activity.

• Most Nuclei contain at least ONE NUCLEOLUS (plural,

Nucleoli).

• The NUCLEOLUS MAKES (synthesizes) RIBOSOMES,

WHICH IN TURN, BUILD PROTEINS.

• When a Cell prepares to Reproduce, the NUCLEOLUS

DISAPPEARS.

28
 Functions of nucleus
• The nucleus contains the hereditary
material (chromosomes) of an organism.

• The nucleus is essential for cell division.

• Controls the activities of a cell by

regulating protein synthesis.

29
 Mitochondria
The Structure of mitochondrion

• MITOCHONDRIA (MET-oh-KAHN-dree-uh) are found scattered

throughout the Cytosol, and are relatively Large Organelles.

• Mitochondria are the sites of Chemical Reactions that transfer

Energy from Organic Compounds to ATP. Energy contain in food is
released. Converted to ATP. ATP is the molecule that most Cells
use as their main Energy Currency.

• THE "POWERHOUSE" OF THE CELL.

• Mitochondria are Usually more numerous in Cells that have a High

Energy Requirement - Your muscle cells contain a large number of
mitochondria.

30
• Mitochondria is surrounded by TWO Membranes.

• The smooth outer membrane serves as a boundary

between the mitochondria and the cytosol.

• The inner membrane has many long folds, known as

CRISTAE (KRIS-tee). The Cristae greatly increases the
surface area of the inner membrane, providing more
space for the Chemical Reactions to occur.

• Mitochondria have their own DNA, and new mitochondria

arise only when existing ones Grow and divide.

31
The Structure of mitochondrion

32
Functions of mitochondrion

• Involved in cellular respiration, which is a

series of biochemical reactions that result
in the formation of ATP.

33
Endoplasmic reticulum

34
 The Structure of Endoplasmic
reticulum
• ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER) is a system of
membranous tubules and sacs.

• The ER functions Primarily as an Intracellular Highway, a

path along which molecules move from one part of the
cell to another.

• The amount of ER inside a cell fluctuates, depending on

the Cell's Activity.

• Poisons, waste, and other toxic chemicals are made

harmless.
35
 The Structure of Endoplasmic
reticulum
• ER is an extensive network of membranes
that connect the Nuclear Envelope to the
Cell Membrane.

• ransports materials through the cell.

• Can be ROUGH OR SMOOTH.

36
 Functions of Endoplasmic
reticulum
ROUGH ER
– is studded with RIBOSOMES and processes
PROTEINS to be exported from the cell.

SMOOTH ER
– IS NOT Covered with RIBOSOMES and processes
LIPIDS and CARBOHYDRATES. The Smooth ER is
involved in the synthesis of steroids in gland cells,
the regulation of calcium levels in muscle cells, and
the breakdown of toxic substances by liver cells.

37
Golgi body

38
 The Structure of Golgi body
• GOLGI BODY (GOHL-jee) is the Processing, Packaging
and Secreting Organelle of the Cell.

• The Golgi Apparatus is a system of membranes.

• Made of Flattened SAC like Structures called

CISTERNAE.

• Cisternae are continually being formed at one end of the

Golgi body (the forming face) and continually being
broken down into vesicles at the other end (the maturing
face).
39
 Functions of Golgi body
• It works Closely with the ER, the Golgi
Apparatus modifies proteins for export by
the cell.

• Golgi apparatus is also the site of

producing vesicles called Lysosomes.

40
Ribosomes

41
 The Structure of ribosomes
• Unlike most other organelles, Ribosomes Are
Not Surrounded by a membrane.

• They are Most Numerous Organelles in almost

all cells.

• Some are free in the Cytoplasm;

• others line the membranes of ROUGH

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM.
42
 Functions of ribosomes
• Ribosomes are the site of PROTEIN
SYNTHESIS (Production or
Construction) in a cell.

43
Lysosomes

44
The Structure of Lysosomes
• Lysosomes are small spherical organelles
that enclose hydrolytic (digestive)
enzymes within a single membrane.

• Lysosomes are vesicles that bud (break

off) from the Golgi apparatus and that
contain digestive enzymes.

45
 Functions of Lysosomes
• Lysosomes are the Site of Food Digestion in the Cell.
They can break down large molecules such as proteins,
nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and phospholipids.

• In the liver, they break down glycogen to release glucose

into the blood stream.

• Some white blood cells use lysosomes to break down

bacteria.

• Within a cell, lysosomes digest worn-out organelles in a

process called Autophagy.
46
 Functions of Lysosomes
• Lysosomes are also responsible for breaking down cells
when it is time for the cells to die - Apoptosis.

• The digestion of damaged or extra cells by the enzymes

of their own lysosomes is called Autolysis.

• Lysosomes play a very important in maintaining an

organism's health by destroying cells no longer
functioning properly.

• Lysosomes are common in the Cells of Animals, Fungi,

and Protists, But they are Rare in Plant Cells.
47
Chloroplasts

48
The Structure of chloroplasts
• Chloroplasts are GREEN because they contain
CHLOROPHYLL, a PIGMENT that ABSORBS
ENERGY IN SUNLIGHT.

• THEY ARE FOUND ONLY IN ALGAE, SUCH AS

SEAWEED, AND IN GREEN PLANTS.

• Other Plastids called Chromoplasts store

reddish-orange pigments that color fruits,
vegetables, flowers, and autumn
leaves.

49
• Bounded by a double membrane.

• The interior of the chloroplast is filled with a gel-like

matrix called the stroma.

• Each Chloroplast encloses a system of Flattened,

Membranous Sacs called THYLAKOIDS.

• It is in the Thylakoids that Photosynthesis occurs.

• Thylakoids are stacked to form grana (sing: granum).

• Stacks of grana are joined by intergranal lamellae.

• Intergranal lamellae and grana contain photosynthetic

pigments (chlorophyll).
50
 Functions of chloroplast
• CHLOROPLAST, an organelle that converts
SUNLIGHT, CARBON DIOXIDE, AND WATER
INTO SUGARS.

• This process is called PHOTOSYNTHESIS.

• Light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis

occur on the lamellae while the light-
independent reactions occur in the stroma.
51
 Vesicles
The Structure and Functions of vesicles

• VESICLES - membrane sacs

• Cells contain several types of vesicles, which perform

various roles.

• Vesicles are small, spherically shaped sacs that are

surrounded by a single membrane and that are classified
by their contents.

• Vesicles often migrate to and merge with the plasma

membrane to release their contents outside of the cell. 52
PEROXISOMES

• Peroxisomes are similar to lysosomes but

contain different enzymes and are not produced
by the Golgi apparatus.
•
• Peroxisomes are abundant in liver and kidney
cells, where they neutralize free radicals (oxygen
ions that can damage cells) and detoxify alcohol
and other drugs.
53
PEROXISOMES

• They are named for the Hydrogen

Peroxide, H2O2, they produce when
braking down alcohol and killing bacteria.

• Peroxisomes also break down fatty acids,

which the mitochondria can then use as
an energy source.
54
OTHER VESICLES
• Other vesicles can be found in different types of
cells:

– Glyoxysomes - can be found in the seeds of plants

to break down stored fats to provide energy for the
developing plant embryo.

– Endosomes - vesicles formed from cells engulfing

material by surrounding it with its plasma membrane.

– Food Vacuoles - are vesicles that store nutrients for

the cell.

– Contractile vacuoles - are vesicles that can contract

and remove excess water from inside a cell.
55
CYTOSKELETON

56
The Structure of cytoskeleton
• The cytoskeleton is made of various types of
special proteins.

• Microtubules are hollow tubes made of globular

proteins. Most notably, they are found in cilia,
flagella, and centrioles.

• The arrangement of microtubules in cilia and

flagella consists of nine doublets around the
edge and two single microtubules in the center,
all running the length of the structure.

57
The Structure of cytoskeleton
• This is referred to as the “nine-plus-two formula.”

• In centrioles, microtubules are arranged in 9

sets of 3 each.

• Animal cells typically have a pair of centrioles

located just outside the nucleus and oriented at
right angles to each other.

• Microfilaments are also part of the cytoskeleton

and are made of solid rods of globular proteins.
58
• The Cytoskeleton is a network of long
protein strands located in the Cytosol, that
are Not surrounded by a membrane.

• The CYTOSKELETON consists of Three

Types:

– MICROTUBULES
– MICROFILAMENTS
– INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS.
59
MICROTUBULES
– Microtubules are HALLOW TUBES like
plumbing pipes. They are the Largest Strands
of the Cytoskeleton.

– Microtubules are made of a PROTEIN called

TUBULIN.

MICROFILAMENTS
– MICROFILAMENTS are NOT HALLOW and
have a structure that resembles ROPE made
of TWO TWISTED CHAINS OF PROTEIN
called ACTIN.
60
INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS

• Intermediate filaments are rods that

anchor the nucleus and some other
organelles to their place in the cell.

61
CILIA AND FLAGELLA

62
• Cilia and Flagella are Hairlike Organelles that extend
from the surface of the cell, where they assist in
movement.

• Microtubules are sometimes bundled into structures

called CILIA AND FLAGELLA.

• CILIA ARE SHORT HAIRLIKE PROJECTIONS.

• FLAGELLA ARE LONG WHIPLIKE PROJECTIONS.

• The Cilia and Flagella of all Eukaryotes consist of ONE

PAIR OF MICROTUBULES SURROUNDED BY NINE
MORE PAIRS.

• CILIA ARE OFTEN NUMEROUS.

• FLAGELLA ARE OFTEN SINGULAR. 63

 Functions of cytoskeleton
• Just as your body depends on your skeleton to
maintain its shape and size, so a Cell needs structures
to maintain its shape and size.

• In Animal Cells, an internal framework called

CYTOSKELETON maintains the Shape of the Cell.

• THE CYTOSKELETON MAINTAINS THE THREE-

DIMENSIONAL STRUCTURE OF THE CELL,
PARTICIPATES IN THE MOVEMENT OF
ORGANELLES WITHIN THE CYTOSOL, AND HELPS
THE CELL MOVE.

64
Microtubules have THREE FUNCTIONS:

– To maintain the shape of the cell and hold organelles

in place.

– To serve as tracks for organelles and molecules to

move along within the cell.

– When the Cell is about to divide, two short cylinders

of Microtubules at right angles known as Centrioles
can be found situated in the cytoplasm near the
nuclear envelope.

– Centrioles organize the micortubules of the

cytoskeleton during Cell Division in animal cells, plant
cells lack centrioles.
65
 Function of Microfilaments

• MICROFILAMENTS can CONTRACT,

causing movement.

• Muscle Cells have many microfilaments.

• Intermediate filaments:maintain the

internal shape of the nucleus.

66
 Function of Cilia and flagella
• Unicellular organisms such as
Paramecium and Euglena use Cilia and
Flagella to move through water.

• Sperm use flagella to swim to the egg.

• In Humans, beating Cilia line parts of the

respiratory system, moving dust particles
and bacteria away from the lungs.
67
 Movement of molecules / substances in
and out of cell
• Cell membranes are a barrier to most
substances, and this property allows
materials to be concentrated inside cells,
excluded from cells, or simply separated
from the outside environment.

68
• Obviously materials need to be able to
enter and leave cells, and there are
various methods by which substances can
move across a cell membrane:

– Passive Transport (simple diffusion, facilitated

diffusion and osmosis)
– Active Transport
– Osmosis
– Bulk transport (exocytosis and endocytosis)

69
 Movement of molecules /
substances in and out of cell

70
 Passive transport
• Passive transport is the transport of
substances across a membrane by a
trans-membrane protein molecule.

• No energy required

• Move due to gradient

71
Simple Diffusion (or Lipid
Diffusion)

72
• A few substances can diffuse directly through the lipid
bilayer part of the membrane.

• The only substances that can do this are lipid-soluble

molecules such as steroids, or very small molecules,
such as H2O, O2 and CO2.

• For these molecules the membrane is no barrier at all.

• Since simple diffusion is (obviously) a passive diffusion

process, no energy is involved and substances can only
move down their concentration gradient.

• Simple diffusion cannot be controlled by the cell, in the

sense of being switched on or off.

73
 Facilitated diffusion
– Glucose, sodium ions and choride ions are just a few
examples of molecules and ions that must efficently
get across the plasma membrane but to which the
lipid bilayer of the membrane is virtually impermiable.

– Their transport must therefore be "facilitated" by

proteins that span the membrane and provide an
alternative route or bypass.

– Facilitated diffusion is the name given this process.

– It is similar to simple diffusion in the sense that it does

not require expenditure of metabolic energy and
transport is again down an electrochemical gradient.
74
– Two major groups of integral membrane
proteins are involved in facilitated diffusion:

• By carrier protein
• By channel protein

75
Facilitated diffusion

76
Facilitated diffusion via carrier
proteins
– A carrier protein will have a specific binding
site for the substance it transports.

– The substance will bind on the side where it at

a high concentration and be released where it
is at a low concentration.

– Once they bind, the protein changes shape

and the molecules come off the binding site
on the other side of the membrane.
77
 Facilitated diffusion via channel
proteins / ion channels
• Ion Channels / channel proteins do not really bind the
solute, but are like hydrophilic pores through the
membrane that open and allow certain types of solutes,
usually inorganic ions, to pass through.

• In general, channels are quite specific for the type of

solute they will transport and transport through channels
is quite a bit faster than by carrier proteins.

• Channel Proteins form a water-filled pore or channel in

the membrane. This allows charged substances (usually
ions) to diffuse across membranes.

78
 Facilitated diffusion via channel
proteins / ion channels
• Most channels can be gated (opened or closed),
allowing the cell to control the entry and exit of
ions.

• When the gate is open, the channel transports,

and when the gate is closed, the channel is
closed.

• thus of particular importance in the physiology of

excitable cells like neurons and muscle cells.
79
 Osmosis
• Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a membrane.

• The contents of cells are essentially solutions of

numerous different solutes, and the more concentrated
the solution, the more solute molecules there are in a
given volume, so the fewer water molecules there are.

• Water molecules can diffuse freely across a membrane,

but always down their concentration gradient, so water
therefore diffuses from a dilute to a concentrated
solution.

80
 Definitions of osmosis
– Osmosis is the net movement of water
molecules from a region of higher water
concentration to a region of lower water
concentration through a partially permeable
membrane.

– Osmosis is the net movement of water

molecules from a region of higher water
potential to a region of lower water
potential through a partially permeable
membrane.
81
82
Concept of osmotic pressure

83
• Osmotic pressure can be measured in non-living
system using as osmometer, which contains an
artificial partially permeable membrane.

• The bottom of a filter funnel is covered with a

membrane permeable to water but not to
glucose.

• The filter funnel is filled with a glucose solution

and immersed in pure water to the level of a
solution.

• Later; glucose solution is risen in the filter funnel,

level of water in the outer container has fallen.
84
85
• Water moved from container into the filter funnel
by osmosis.

• A piston is used to exert pressure on an identical

glucose solution.

• The osmotic pressure is the pressure that

must be applied to prevent entry of water into
the glucose solution.

• The opposite force, the solute potential, is the

tendency of the glucose solution to gain
water from pure water across membrane.

86
 Concept of solute potential (osmotic
potential) (ψs solute potential)
• Solute potential is the potential of a solution to gain
water.

• It is always negative and has a magnitude equal to the

osmotic pressure of a solution.

• The more concentrate a solution, the greater its osmotic

pressure and the lower (more negative) its solute
potential.

• Water moves from a region of higher (less negative)

solute potential to one of lower (more negative) solute
potential.

87
• The addition of a Solute Decreases Water
Potential.

• Solute Potential (Osmotic Potential)

represents the effects of solutes on Water
Potential.

• Solutes lower the water potential by diluting

the water molecules.

88
Osmotic pressure
Concentrated solution has high
osmotic pressure but low solute
potential

Dilute solution has low

osmotic pressure but high
solute potential

Dilute solution

Concentrated solution

Solute potential

Relationship between osmotic pressure and solute potential 89

 Concept of water potential
(Water potentials - ψ)
• ``Osmosis can be quantified using water potential, so we
can calculate which way water will move, and how fast.

• Water potential (Ψ, the Greek letter psi, pronounced

"sy") is simply the effective concentration of water. It is
measured in units of pressure (Pa, or usually kPa), and
the rule is that water always "falls" from a high to a low
water potential (in other words it's a bit like gravity
potential or electrical potential).

• 100% pure water has Ψ = 0, which is the highest

possible water potential, so all solutions have < 0, and
you cannot get > 0.

90
91
• The water potential of a solution is defined as
the tendency for water molecules to leave the
solution by osmosis.

• The more concentrate a solution is, the lower is

its water potential and the smaller the tendency
for water to leave the solution.

• In concentrate solution, most water molecules

are associated with solute molecules and are
therefore not free to move about.

92
• Pure Water has the Highest Water Potential which is set at
ZERO.

Pressure

• The term Hydrostatic Pressure is used to indicate the pressure

component of Water Potential.

• Positive Pressures increase the Water Potential.

• Positive Pressure would bring Water Molecules closer together.

• Negative Pressures reduce Water Potential.

• They pull water molecules further apart.

• This lowers the potential energy of water.

• Water Potential = Solute (Osmotic) Potential + Pressure Potential

93
 Osmosis in animal and plant cells
• The concentration of the solution that
surrounds a cell will affect the state of the
cell, due to osmosis.

94
There are three possible concentrations of
solution to consider:

• Hypotonic
– Solutes in cell more than outside
– Outside solvent will flow into cell

• Isotonic
– Solutes equal inside & out of cell

• Hypertonic
– Solutes greater outside cell
– Fluid will flow out of cell
95
The effects of the solutions on cells
are shown in this diagram

96
Osmosis in animal cells

97
 Isotonic solution
• When a red blood cell is placed in a
solution whose water potential is the same
as the cell (isotonic solution), the cell
neither shrinks nor swells.

98
 Hypotonic solution
• When a red blood cell is placed in a solution whose
water potential is higher than that of the cell
(hypotonic solution), there will be a net gain of water
by endomosmosis, causing the cell swell.

• If a large volume of water entres the cell, the cell

burst and the content are realeased.

• Because animal cell lacks a cell wall to prevent the

cell form bursting.

99
 Hypertonic solution
• When a red blood cell is placed in a solution
whose water potential is lower than that of the cell
(hypertonic solution) there will be a net loos of
water by exosmosis, causing the cell to shrink.

• Red blood cell becomes crenated when

this happens.

100
 Osmosis in plant cells
Placing in a solution with a Higher water
potential (hypotonic)

• Water will move through the plasma membrane and

tonoplast, and into the vacuole by endosmosis.

• The cell swells.

• Does not burst because the cell wall is stretched and

develops a tension, resisting further uptake of water into
the cell and therefore further expansion of the cell.

101
 Osmosis in plant cells
Placing in a solution with a Higher water
potential (hypotonic)

• When water enters a plant cell, the cell contents start to

push against the inside of the cell wall.

• In turn, the cell wall pushes back on the expanding cell

(pressure potential) and it opposes the continued
uptake of water into the cell by endosmosis.

• The pressure potential reaches its maximum when the

cell wall is stretched as much as it can be and the cell
cannot take in any more water (full turgor is achieved).
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Placing in a solution with a Lower water potential
(hypertonic)

• Volume of the cell decreases as water flows out of the

vacuole by exosmosis.

• A plasma membrane starts to pull away from the cell

wall.

• The space between the cell wall and plasma membrane

will be filled with the outside solution.

• This withdrawal of the plasma membrane from the cell

wall called plasmolysis.

• The point when the plasma membrane starts pulling

away from the cell wall is called incipient plasmolysis.
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 Active transport
• Active transport is used to move ions or molecules
against a concentration gradient (low concentration to
high concentration).

• Movement against a concentration gradient requires

energy.

• The energy is supplied by ATP which is released by

breaking a phosphate bond to produce ADP:

ATP → ADP + Pi + energy

• Cells that use a lot of active transport have many

mitochondria to produce the ATP needed.
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The Sodium-Potassium Pump

• The sodium-potassium pump uses active

transport to move 3 sodium ions to the outside
of the cell for each 2 potassium ions that it
moves in.

• It is found in all human cells, especially nerve

and muscle cells.

• One third of the body’s energy expenditure is

used to operate the sodium-potassium pump.

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Examples of Active Transport

• Plants move minerals (inorganic ions) into their roots by

active transport.

• The gills of marine fish have cells that can remove salt
from the body by pumping it into the salt water.

• The thyroid gland cells bring in iodine for use in

producing hormones.

• Cells in the vertebrate kidney reabsorb sodium ions from

urine.

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 Mechanism of operation of the
Sodium-Potassium Pump
• In these diagrams, orange is used to represent
the pump protein.

• Circles are used to represent sodium ions and

squares are used to represent potassium ions.

• Notice that the pump has three sodium binding

sites and two potassium binding sites.

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108
 Mechanism of operation of the
Sodium-Potassium Pump
• Three sodium ions enter the pump.

• ATP bonds to the pump.

• One phosphate bond in the ATP molecule breaks,

releasing its energy to the pump protein. The pump
protein changes shape, releasing the sodium ions to
the outside.

• The two potassium binding sites are also exposed to

the outside, allowing two potassium ions to enter the
pump.
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 Mechanism of operation of the
Sodium-Potassium Pump
• When the phosphate group detaches
from the pump, the pump returns to its
original shape.

• The two potassium ions leave and three

sodium ions enter.

• The cycle then repeats itself.

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 Bulk transport
– The processes described so far only apply to small
molecules.

– Large molecules (such as proteins, polysaccharides

and nucleotides) and even whole cells are moved in
and out of cells by using membrane vesicles.

– Materials are released from cells by exocytosis or

taken into cells by endocytosis. The processes
described so far only apply to small molecules.
• Large molecules (such as proteins, polysaccharides and
nucleotides) and even whole cells are moved in and out of
cells by using membrane vesicles.
• Materials are released from cells by exocytosis or taken into
cells by endocytosis.
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Endocytosis

112
 Endocytosis
• Endocytosis is the transport of materials into a
cell.

• Materials are enclosed by a fold of the cell

membrane, which then pinches shut to form a
closed vesicle.

• There are two types of endocytosis:

– pinocytosis
– phagocytosis

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Pinocytosis

114
 Pinocytosis
• When the materials and the vesicles are
small (such as a protein molecule) the
process is known as pinocytosis (cell
drinking).

115
Phagocytosis

116
 Phagocytosis
• If the materials are large (such as a white blood
cell ingesting a bacterial cell) the process is
known as phagocytosis (cell eating).

• E.g:
– Kuffer cell in liver engulf worn-out erythrocytes and
bacteria.
– White blood cells (neutrophils and macrophages)
– Amoeba engulf a food particle.

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Exocytosis

118
 Exocytosis
• Exocytosis is the transport of materials
out of a cell. It is the exact reverse of
endocytosis.

• Materials to be exported must first be

enclosed in a membrane vesicle, usually
from the RER and Golgi Body.

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 Exocytosis
• Hormones and digestive enzymes are
secreted by exocytosis from the secretory
cells of the intestine and endocrine glands.

• Sometimes materials can pass straight

through cells without ever making contact
with the cytoplasm by being taken in by
endocytosis at one end of a cell and
passing out by exocytosis at the other
end.
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END OF THIS TOPIC

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