MORPHOLOGY: the study of words and their structure (i.e. what they are composed of).

Words have structure

e.g. do studied remake cat eats player wind going falsify table greater clockwise

Each word is made of one or more MORPHEMES.

MORPHEME: the smallest unit of meaning in the structure of language. Morphemes contribute to the meaning of words. Each English word is constituted by at least one core element, the ROOT, or FREE morpheme. FREE morpheme: an independent word, with its own independent meaning.

Do, cat, wind, and table are words constituted by one morpheme, the root (or free morpheme) Words change their structure when affixes are added to them. studied eats going greater < < < < study + -ed eat + -s go + -ing great + -er

-ed, -s, -ing, -er are examples of BOUND MORPHEMES

BOUND morphemes: can only exist as attachments to the root. They do not have an independent meaning. Bound morphemes: affixes. Affixes are called prefixes if they are attached to the left of a root, and suffixes if they are attached to the right of a root.

Examples of words in which bound morphemes are added to the root: studied < study + -ed eats < eat + -s going < go + -ing greater < great + -er remake player falsify clockwise < < < < re- + make play + -er false + -ify clock + -wise

re-, -er, -ify, -wise are bound morphemes.

Affixes: -s, -ed, -ing, -er; re-, -er, -ify, -wise -able antidisauto-ee -er hyper-ify e.g. disposable, usable e.g. antibody, antiwar e.g. disregard, dishonest e.g. autobiography, autofocus e.g. employee, refugee e.g. player, cleaner e.g. hyperactive, hypertension e.g. falsify, purify

in-ish mis-ness reselfun-wise

e.g. indecision, incompetent e.g. greenish, childish e.g. mislead, mismatch e.g. coldness, weakness e.g. remake, re-examine e.g. self-made, self-restraint e.g. unhappy, unheard, unintentional e.g. clockwise, crabwise

Employ employ, employs, employed, employing employment employer, employers employee, employees unemployment unemployed unemployable self-employed

INFLECTION: forms new words by adding functional information to the root (generally a prefix), but the core meaning of the word does not change.
employ do cat wind table study eat go great employs does cats winds tables studies eats goes greater employed employing did done doing

studied ate went greatest

studying eaten going

gone

CREATION OF NEW WORDS (0. Inflection) 1. Derivation 2. Compounding 3. Conversion 4. Blending 5. Clipping (abbreviation) 6. Acronyms and initialisms 7. Backformation 8. Borrowing

1. DERIVATION: the process of forming new words by adding prefixes and suffixes to roots or other derived words.

employment employer employee unemployment unemployed unemployable self-employed

2. COMPOUNDING: a compound word is formed from the combination of two or more roots. 1. Solid form e.g. football, footbridge, highlight, outsource, overestimate, pigeonhole, somewhere

2. Hyphenated form e.g. blue-collar, open-minded, well-being 3. Open (or Spaced) form e.g. black tie, distance learning, ice cream, life jacket

Electronic mail

>

e-mail

>

email

3. CONVERSION: a word changes word class and becomes a new lexical item, without the addition of an affix.

bottle (noun) skin (noun) sign (noun) to fear (verb) to laugh (verb) open (adjective) slow (adjective)

> > > > > > >

to bottle (verb) to skin (verb) to sign (verb) fear (noun) laugh (noun) to open (verb) to slow (verb)

4. BLENDING: forms new words by taking parts of two words and combining them. brunch motel smog genome workaholic < < < < < breakfast + lunch motor + hotel smoke + fog gene + chromosome work + alcoholic

docudrama edutainment infotainment

< < <

documentary + drama education + entertainment information + entertainment

5. CLIPPING (or abbreviation): a shorter (and often less formal) form of an existing word. The existing word is reduced to one or two syllables.
bus dorm exam fax flu fridge pram < < < < < < < omnibus dormitory examination facsimile influenza refrigerator perambulator

6a. ACRONYMS: abbreviated words formed by the initial letters of a string of two or more words. The new word is pronounced as a word.

ASAP LASER
MIDI NATO

< <
< <

as soon as possible Light Amplification through the Stimulated Emission of Radiation Musical Instrument Digital Interface North Atlantic Treaty Organisation

6b. INITIALISMS: same formation as acronyms, but the letters are pronounced individually. MP VIP < < Member of Parliament Very Important Person

PBAB RSVP

< <

please bring a bottle rpondez sil vous plait

7. BACKFORMATION: a new word is created by removing a recognisable affix. to babysit to burgle to deconstruct to edit to legislate < < < < < babysitter burglar deconstruction editor legislator

8. BORROWINGS: the act of taking a word from another language and adding it to the native vocabulary, with little or no translation.

Examples of recent loan words: karaoke salsa bhangra

From Afrikaans: aardvark From Hindi: bungalow From Italian: broccoli From Spanish: alligator trek chutney grotto armada

fatwa

pyjamas studio mosquito

MULTI-WORD ITEMS: lexemes made of two or more words

PHRASAL VERBS: are composed of a verb and an adverb

particle (or two) and have unitary meaning. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. catch up (someone) come back give up go about (something) hold back let (someone) down look out on make out pick up (someone) point out put up with

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

catch up (someone) come back give up go about (something) hold back let (someone) down look out on make out pick up (someone) point out put up with

reach return relinquish approach retain, reserve disappoint face perceive, distinguish collect indicate tolerate

BINOMIAL EXPRESSIONS: are fixed and cannot be reversed be-all and end-all dribs and drabs flotsam and jetsam milk and honey odds and ends pros and cons rank and file spick and span to and fro

OPEN COMPOUNDS: are originally separate words, but then become accepted as members of the vocabulary
anti-lock braking system glass ceiling information fatigue (syndrome) road rage Third Way voice mail wireless application protocol (WAP)