Carbonization is the conversion of an organic

substance into carbon or a carbon-containing residue through pyrolysis or destructive distillation. Carbonization is exothermic, which means that it could in principle be made self-sustaining and be used as a source of energy which does not produce carbon dioxide.

 The substance to be carbonized is kept in a closed

vessel in anearobic condition. Vessel is heated to high temperatures and all the volatile matter is driven off as gases or liquids. A solid consisting mainly of elemental carbon is obtained.

 Wood preparation

Drier
Carbonization retort Hot gases recovery

By-products recovery

 There are two broad types of wood:

Hardwoods produced by broadleaved species and Softwoods produced by conifers.

Bark waste from timber processing. Agricultural residues for charcoal:

nut shells and husks residues from farm crop processing and canning sugar cane bagasse bamboo, scrub and cactus garbage wastes straw and reeds industrial wastes as from carpet factories and pulp mills processing residues from coffee, cotton and fruit canning

Except for nut shells agricultural residues are not a preferred raw

material for charcoal making.

Types of carbonization

Based on Temperature

Based on Retort heating systems

Low

Medium

High

Direct method

Indirect method

Hybrid

 Temperature range 550 to 700 o C

Obtains maximum yield of liquid products.

Produces free burning semi-cokes(Volatile matter 8 to

20%) Rich gases are obtained with CV 700 to 1000 Btu. Yields paraffin series of hydrocarbons.

 Temperature range around 800 o C.

Produces smokeless domestic fuel.

Yields soft cokes. Yield is better than low temperature carbonization.

By product are most similar to that of high

temperature carbonization Paraffinic material obtain are more valuable than those obtained at low temperature

 Beehive ovens(Fire brick chambers shaped like

beehive). Good quality coke is obtained. Higher yield is obtained. Used in most of the iron and steel industries. Aromatic hydrocarbons of benzene series are obtained.

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 Part of the wood is charged to provide the heat for

carbonization. Rate of burning is controlled by the amount of air admitted to the kiln, pit, mound or retort. Most commonly used systems. More efficient as the heat is generated where it is needed. Fluidized and other types of agitated bed carboniser also rely on this system. Combustion control of wood is tedious, burning excess wood.

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 Heat for carbonization is obtained from external fuel.

The system is inefficient due to heat loss from the

metal walls of the retort. Overheating of the retort walls often occurs causing damage.

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 Wood is heated by direct contact with hot inert

gas(absence of O2) circulated under fan pressure through the retort. Heat transfer in this system is better than indirect method. The gas is free of oxygen there is no combustion inside the retort.

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LTC Products External Coke(%) 70-80 Internal 60-75 7-15 60-70 1-2 HTC

Volatile matter in coke(%) 7-15

Tar(gal/ton)
Light oil

20-30
2.5-3

18-20
1.02-1.07

10-12
2.5-3

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 The yield compared to domestic method is higher.

Carbonization is more rapid.

Charcoal can be made from raw materials that cannot

be processed by traditional methods. Industrial chemicals and heat energy can be recovered from the smoke given off during carbonization. By recovering by-products from the smoke there is less pollution of the environment.

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 The moisture content of the wood at time of

carbonisation. The type of carbonising equipment used. The care with which the process is carried out.

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Pit mounds

Direct method

Rotary klins Metal klins

Fixed

Portable

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Direct heating by recirculating hot neutral gas Indirect method Indirect heating through retort walls

Brick klins

Metal klins

Fixed Fixed

Metal retort Portable

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 The drying of the wood.

Raising the temperature dry wood to 270C to start

pyrolysis. Heating to 500-550C to drive off tar and increase the fixed carbon content for good yield.

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Stages In Charcoal Formation

20 to 110C The wood absorbs heat as it is dried giving off its moisture. The temperature remains at or slighly above 100C until the wood is bone dry. Final traces of water are given off . Wood starts to decompose giving off some carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, acetic acid and methanol.

110 to 270C

270 to 290C

This is the point at which exothermic decomposition of the wood starts. Heat is evolved and annihilation continues until the wood is not cooled below the decomposition temperature. Mixed gases and vapours continue to be given off together with some tar.

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Stages In Charcoal Formation

290 to 400C Breakdown of the wood structure continues . Vapours are given off comprising carbon monoxide Hydrogen methane carbon dioxide gas And the condensible vapours: water acetic acid Methanol acetone, etc. and tars which predominates as the temperature rises.

400 to 500C

At 400C the transformation of the wood to charcoal is practically complete containing around 30% of tar. Burned charcoal needs further heating to drive off more of the tar. The fixed carbon content of the charcoal to about 75% which is normal for good quality commercial charcoal. 23

Chemical and Physical Composition of Charcoal Dry Basis - by weight Carbon Ash Volatile matter Bulk density (kg/m3) Bulk density dry(kg/m3) Average Size (mm) Fines content Moisture content

Range Max. Min. Min 60% 3% 15% 200 180 Max 80% 10% 26% 330 270

10 10% 5%

60 22% 25%

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Wood species Production Method

Moisture content %

Ash%

Volatile matter %

Fixed carbon%

Bulk density raw kg/m3

Bulk density pulverise d kg/m3

Gross calorific value kJ/kg

Remarks

Dakama

Earth pit

7.5

1.4

16.9

74.2

314

708

32410

Pulverised fuel for rotary kilns

Wallaba Kautaballi Mixed Tropical Hardwood ''

" " "

6.9 6.6 5.4

1.3 3.0 8.9

14.7 24.8 17.1

77.1 65.6 68.6

261 290

563 596

35580 29990 Low grade charcoal fines Domestic charcoal Well burned sample Soft burned sample 32500 30140

" Earth mound

5.4

1.2

23.6

69.8

Wallaba

5.9

1.3

8.5

84.2

"

" Portable steel kiln " Retort

5.8

0.7

46.0

47.6

Oak Coconut shells Eucalyptu s Saligna

3.5 4.0 5.1

2.1 1.5 2.6

13.3 13.5 25.8

81.1 83.0 66.8

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Carbonization Temperature C Species 350 400 450 500 590 700 800 950

Euc camaldulensis % volatiles % yield 39.4 49.7 35.8 46.8 31 43.6 26 40.7 16.7 36.2 4.4 31.5 0 30.1 0 30.1

Euc saligna % volatiles % yield 40.4 49.9 37.8 47.9 30 42.6 24.9 39.8 15.8 35.4 4.1 31.1 0 29.8 0 29.8

Mean of 15 spp
% volatiles % yield 39.8 47.4 35.3 44.1 29.9 40.7 24.6 37.8 16.2 34.1 4.6 30 .5 28.7 0 28.5

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 The watery condensate of the vapours leaving the

retort is known as pyroligneous acid.

Yield per 1,000 kg of air dry wood
Acetic acid Methanol Acetone and Methyl Acetone Soluble tars Insoluble tars 50 kg 16 kg 8 kg 190 kg 50 kg

Soluble tars - Water miscible susbstance Insoluble tars- Water immiscible susbstance

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Product Charcoal, lump Charcoal, granular Charcoal dust

Raw Material hard wood, soft wood charcoal. lump charcoal, lump

Application activated carbon, ferro-silicon, cooking, metal working, sodium cyanide, carbon disulfide, iron and steel, silicon. activated carbon, additive to animal food, filling compound for bottled gas, steel hardening compound. activated carbon, lining of moulds in metal foundries, production of briquettes, cementation granulate, pyrotechnics, explosives, electrodes, batteries. fuel for steam boiler, furnaces, metallurgy, fire brick making, raw material for chemical industry, electrodes.

Soluble or pyrolytic tars

hard wood, soft wood, agricultural wastes

Wood gas
Wood vinegar Wood tar Crude methanol

hard wood, soft wood, agricultural wastes

hard wood hard wood wood alcohol

heating gas for all types of operations, gas engines.

food preservation and flavouring of meat and smoked fish, perfume and aroma industry. rope industry, veterinary medicine, pitch, creosote. methyl acetate, solvent, denaturant.

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Product

Raw Material

Application

Solvent

wood alcohol

cellulose esters and agglutinants, synthetics, lacquers. cellulose esters and agglutinants, synthetics, lacquers. cellulose esters and agglutinants, synthetics, lacquers. chemical, pharmaceutical, food, rayon, textile and film industries, vinegar. pharmaceuticals, flavour and fragrances. pharmaceutical and perfume industries.

Methyl formate

crude wood vinegar and crude methanol

Methyl acetate

crude wood vinegar and crude methanol

Acetic acid

crude wood acid

Propionic acid Butyric acid

crude wood acid crude wood acid

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 Explosions
The causes of such accidents are often not clear but are

probably most often due to mixture of pyrolysis gases with air. In a batch-wise operated retort the presence of gas in the retort is greatest at the end of the cycle, the admittance of air can form highly explosive gas mixtures. In a continuously operated converter, the admittance of more air than needed may cause first a sudden rise in temperature and then formation of explosive mixtures in the off-gas system.
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 Fires
Fire can result from the admission of large quantities of air to

the retort. The inflow of excessive amounts of air could easily change the temperature pattern and may cause very high retort temperatures, either gradually or rapidly, creating a serious fire condition.
Hazards to public
Fire and gas leaks inside the retorts cause a potential hazarard

to the public. Improper sealing or structural leakages of air in the charcoal cooling bins during the cooling period can also lead to considerably reduced yields production of poisonous carbon monoxide gas

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 Pressure relief doors

The feed and storage bins are designed with explosion blow

out panels which will vent gases when the internal pressure goes above limits.
Automatic temperature shutdown
If the temperatures inside the retorts, converter or the off-gas

system exceed preset limits, the air supply, the heating fans of the retorts or the fan of the converter gas system should be shut down. At the same time, the air supply of continuously operated converters should be cut off and the converter isolated. Residual gases should be vented through the emergency flare.
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 Electric power failure devices

If a total power failure occurs, the air supply and the draft fan

stop and all shut-off gates should remain in safe condition.

Temperature indication and control Water supply
A water supply is highly important to any charcoal plant.

Detection of poisonous gases

Poisonous gas (carbon monoxide) is present in retorts and

storage bins that have just been cooled down or in the off-gas system that has just been shut off.
First aid accessories and safety manual
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Fig.Carbonization furnace for agricultural waste

Fig.Charcoal produced from rice husk 34

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