ENGINEERING ACOUSTICS

Contents
Introduction
Measurement of sound
Sound generation mechanism
Sound attenuation
Properties of sound
Room acoustics
Noise control engineering
Introduction
Acoustics is the science of sound including its production,
transmission and effects.

The effect of sound on engineering is studied under Engineering
Acoustics.

Sound is the sensation that results from variations in the air
pressure.

These pressure fluctuations may take place slowly or rapidly and
are always produced by some source of vibrations.

Example : when a tuning fork is plucked
Air layers are disturbed
and are not in normal
atmospheric pressure
(10
5
Nm
-2
)
Sound wave in any medium, consists of a series of alternate
compressions and rarefactions.
At compression - Air Pressure |(>10
5
Nm
-2
)

At rarefaction - Air Pressure +(<10
5
Nm
-2
)
A sound wave may be described in terms of variation of air P.
Sound Field: The space in which sound wave travel is called the
sound field.
In a sound field the particles of the medium show a repetitive
movement backwards and forwards about their mean position

Dir
n
of Propagation: The direction of motion of the particles
is same as the dir
n
of propagation of the wave.
Therefore it is a longitudinal wave motion.

The velocity of the motion of the particles of the medium is
called the particle velocity v.

Fundamentals & Basic Terminology
Sources of sound
a. Point source
b. Line source
c. Real source
Speed of sound
Sound Intensity
Acoustic Impedance
Threshold of Hearing
Threshold of Pain
Hearing of Sound
Sound Intensity Level
Sound Pressure Level
Sound Power Level


Sources of Sound

a. Point Source
A sound source whose dimension is relatively small
compared to the wavelength is called point source.
It generates spherical
wave fronts. i.e. Crests &
troughs lie on concentric
spherical surfaces.

The sound energy is
emitted equally in all
directions in free space.

Wave fronts representing crests
Wave fronts representing troughs
Sources of Sound . . .
b. Line Source
A line source generates plane wave fronts.
A plane wave propagates only in one direction.
i.e. all crests and troughs lie in one plane.
Sources of Sound . . .
c) Real Source
It has a finite size.

It may radiate different amounts of sound in different
directions.

It can be considered as a point source when the source is
located from an observer at a sufficiently large distance
compared to the size.

Then the sound waves can be treated as plane waves.
The speed of sound C in a fluid is given by

k Bulk Modulus
- Density of the fluid

For a gas, the speed of sound C is given by,

k = P,
- is a constant
P Pressure variation



Speed of sound
Speed of sound . . .
Since the density varies with temperature, at t C speed C is given
by,
m/s

m/s
331.5 m/s speed at 0 C at 1 atm
Generally 340 m/s is used as the speed of sound at normal temperature. The
effect due to humidity is negligible.
In a solid C is given by,
E Youngs Modulus
- Density of the medium


Sound Intensity (I)
Sound intensity is a measure for acoustic energy carried by the
wave.
The acoustic energy passing through unit cross sectional area
taken normal to the direction of sound propagation in unit time is
called as sound intensity.




I =
=
Sound Intensity (I) . . .
Consider a tube of unit cross sectional area with its axis parallel
to the direction of propagation of a plane wave.





The plane at x is displaced by dx in time dt
Intensity of wave
dx x
F
A=1m
2
I = = = P = Pv

P sound pressure acting on the plane at x
v particle velocity


Acoustic Impedance (Z)
In general, impedance is defined as the ratio between the
action and effect. (Effect is produced by an alternating action
at a point)
Impedance =

In an electrical circuit, In case of sound,
Z = Z = (1)

The sound pressure P is the action and it produces a particle
velocity v.
Since P is over unit area Z is called the specific acoustic
impedance.
This has a specific value for the medium and therefore is called
Characteristic impedance.
Acoustic Impedance (Z) . . .
For a given medium , C are constants.
Acoustic intensity I v
2
or I P
2

Z = C (2)
I = Pv (3)
It can be proved that for a plane wave in a homogeneous
medium of infinite extent
where, C speed of sound
- average density of the medium
(1),(2) & (3) =>
I = C v
2
Threshold of Hearing
This is the minimum acoustic energy needed for a normal person
to start hearing.
When measured as acoustic pressure it is 2 x 10
-5
Nm
-2


Threshold of pain
This is the maximum acoustic energy a normal person can
tolerate without a pain in ear.
When measured as acoustic pressure it is 20 Nm
-2

Sound intensity
Hearing of sound
The following three factors must be in the correct
range for a normal person to hear a sound.
1.Frequency
20 Hz 20 kHz
Infrasonic Audible range Ultrasonic
2.Pressure

2 x 10
-5
Nm
-2
20 Nm
-2

2.Intensity

10
-12
Wm
-2
1 Wm
-2

Hearing of sound . . .
The audible range varies over a wide range. So it is convenient
to use a logarithmic scale.
The most commonly used logarithmic scale is decibel scale.

Eg:-Consider the set of numbers 10
-12
, 10
-5
, 10
6
, 10
14
% 10
-12
(Smallest no. & is called the reference no.)
10
0
, 10
7
, 10
18
, 10
26
Now take log: 0, 7, 18 26

Any quantity measured in the decibel scale is always a ratio
relative to some reference no. Therefore it is common to use
the word level whenever any quantity is expressed in decibel.
Sound Intensity Level (L)
SIL is defined as,
I Intensity of sound in Wm
-2

I
0
Intensity of reference sound
Usually I
0
is taken as the intensity at the threshold of hearing.
I
0
= 10
-12
Wm
-2

Sound Pressure Level (L)
SPL = P sound pressure in Nm
-2

P
0
- sound pressure at threshold of hearing
( I P
2
=> = )

P
0
= 2 x 10
-5
Nm
-2




Sound Power Level (L
W
)
The acoustic power of a sound source is the total acoustic
energy emitted per unit time (W).

L
W
of a sound source is defined as,
L
W
= 10 log ( )

Where W
0
is the acoustic power of the reference source.
For convenience W
0
is taken as 10
-12
J/s.
Example

Find the sound intensity level & sound pressure level of
the threshold of hearing
the threshold of pain

Example:
Find the sound intensity level & sound
pressure level of
1) the threshold of hearing
2) the threshold of pain

Answer:
SIL = 10 log(I/I
0
) SPL = 20 log(P/P
0
)
At the threshold of hearing
SIL = 10 log(10
-12
/10
-12
) SPL = 20 log(2x10
-5
/2x10
-5
)
= 10 log (1) = 20 log (1)
= 0 dB = 0 dB
At threshold of pain
SIL = 10 log(1/10
-12
) SPL = 20 log(20/2x10
-5
)
= 10 log(10
12
) = 20 log(10
6
)
= 120 dB = 120 dB

Sound Level
For a plane wave the magnitude of sound
intensity level is same as the sound pressure
level in the audible range. Therefore sound
intensity level and sound pressure level can be
referred to as Sound Level.

Example
If three identical sounds are added, what is
the increase in sound level in decibels?




Answer:
Increase in sound level = 10 log(3I/I
0
) 10log(I/I
0
)
= 10 log(3)
= 10 x 0.4771
= 4.8 dB
~ 5 dB

Note: Intensities can be added arithmetically
i.e. I = I
1
+I
2

But the squares of individual pressures must be
added.
i.e. P = (P
1
2
+P
2
2
)
Example
Calculate the average of the sound levels
measured at the operators level in a factory:
80 dB, 82 dB, 84 dB, 86 dB and 88 dB.
Answer:

Sound level L = 10 log(I/I
0
) => I = I
0
x 10
L/10

Average intensity = (I
1
+I
2
+I
3
+I
4
+I
5
)/5
= I
0
(10
L
1
/10 +
10
L
2
/10 +
10
L
3
/10 +
10
L
4
/10 +
10
L
5
/10
) / 5
= I
0
(10
8.0 +
10
8.2 +
10
8.4 +
10
8.6 +
10
8.8
) / 5

L
AV
= 10 log {I
0
x (10
8.0 +
10
8.2 +
10
8.4 +
10
8.6 +
10
8.8
)/(5 x I
0
)}

= 10 log { (10
8.0 +
10
8.2 +
10
8.4 +
10
8.6 +
10
8.8
) / 5 }
= 84.9 dB
~ 85 dB
Chapter 1
Introduction
Fundamentals & Basic terminology
Source of sound
Speed of sound
Sound intensity
Acoustic impedance
Threshold of hearing
Threshold of pain
Hearing of sound
Sound intensity level
Sound pressure level
Sound power level
2. Measurement of sound
The instrument used is the sound level meter. An omni-
directional microphone converts the sound pressure into a
voltage.
This is amplified and passed through a frequency weighting
network which approximates to the ears characteristics
and causes an indicator to respond.
A sound level meter is an instrument which responds to
sound in approximately the same as in the human ear.
Practically sound contains a spectrum of different
frequency.
Measurement of sound . . .
Measurement of sound . . .
Insulation
Sound source
Sound source
Frequency weighting
The frequency weighting network approximates the
frequency response of the ear.
The frequency weighting A is regarded as a close
approximation to the sound level perceived by human
ears.
The measurement taken with the sound level meter
should be identified by the frequency weighting used.
Eg: 90 dB (A)
- dB is the unit
- A is the frequency weighting scale

Frequency weighting . . .









A - Blue
Frequency weighting . . .
Time weighting
A sound level meter is provided with time weighting to
accommodate the fact that the sounds encountered in
practice fluctuate.
The sound level meter has Fast (F) and Slow (S) time
weighting characteristics. The time constants for F & S
responses are 125 ms & 1000 ms respectively.

A time varying quantity
t - time constant
Ai initial value

Time weighting . . .
I Impulse
in some sound level meters, there is an other
response referred to as Impulse (I). Impulse response
has a time constant of 35 ms.

Slow - For the measurement of steady state noises such as
fans or compressors
Fast - For the measurement of variable or fluctuating
noise levels such as traffic
Impulse - For the measurement of very variable or impact
noise levels
Sound level in terms of frequency & time weighting
LAS Slow, A-weighted Sound Level
LAF Fast, A-weighted Sound Level
LCS Slow, C-weighted Sound Level
LCF Fast, C-weighted Sound Level
Calibration of a sound level meter
This is done by means of a source of known noise level
such as a pistonphone.
Calibration by pistonphone is simple in that there is no
difficulty in positioning the source and meter. The
pistonphone fits over the microphone and produces a
note of 250 Hz at 124 dB.
Correction for background noise
Ambient sound: The reading on the sound level meter shows a
total sound pressure level from many sound sources
surrounding the mike.
The effect of background noise can be neglected when,
L
difference
= L
measured
L
background
10 dB
If L
difference
is less than 10 dB, a correction has to be made.
L
difference
dB (A) correction dB (A)
6 to 9 -1
4 to 5 -2
3 -3
< 3 the measurement taken is not reliable
Correction for background noise . . .
The background sound level is defined as the A
weighted sound pressure level of the residual noise (i.e.
the noise remaining when the specific noise source is
suppressed) which is exceeded for 90% of the time. And
it is referred to as L
90
.

Example:
The ambient noise level of a factory is 92 dB (A) when
one machine is in operation. When the machine is
stopped the background noise level is found to be 87.5
dB (A). Obtain the noise level produced by the machine
alone.

Example
L
difference
= L
measured
L
background

= 92 - 87.5 dB (A)
= 4.5 dB (A)
(4<4.5<5)
So the correction factor = -2 dB (A)
Noise level produced by the machine alone
= 92 -2 dB (A)
= 90 dB (A)


Frequency analysis of sound
Most sounds contain a combination of many different
frequencies.
The frequency analysis of sound is essential for noise
control. Because sound absorption is frequency
dependent.
i.e. The same material absorb different amounts of sound
energy at different frequencies.
e.g. To choose the proper kind of absorber.
Frequency analysis is performed by measuring the output
of a sound level meter through a band filter, which passes
only a particular frequency range between f
1
and f
2
. This
is called the bandwidth f (or pass band).
Frequency analysis of sound . . .
f = f
1
f
2
, if f
1
> f
2
where f
1
, f
2
cut-off frequencies
The center mid frequency
f
m
= f
1
f
2
It is usually convenient to measure and analyze sound in
ranges of frequencies such as the octave.
An octave band is the range of frequencies between any
one frequency and double that frequency. (i.e.f
2
=2f
1
)
e.g. 75 150 Hz, 150 300 Hz, 300 600 Hz, 600 1200 Hz, 1200
2400 Hz, 2400 4800 Hz, 4800 9600 Hz
Mostly it is sufficient to know the magnitude of the sound
contains within the octave bands.
Frequency analysis of sound . . .
The preferred center frequencies of acoustic
measurements are 31.5 Hz, 63 Hz, 125 Hz, 250 Hz, 500
Hz, 1000 Hz, 2000 Hz, 4000 Hz, 8000 Hz for octaves.

Frequency analysis of sound is performed using
frequency analyzers such as octaveband analyzer and
1/3 octave-band analyzer.

Note: 1/3 octave band is obtained by dividing the octave
bandwidth into 3 equal parts.


Example
A certain noise was analyzed into octave bands. The
sound levels measured in each center frequency are
given below. Calculate the combined sound level?
Center frequency (Hz) sound level dB (A)
31.5 60
63 60
125 65
250 70
500 65
1000 65
2000 45
4000 40
Measurement conditions
The measurement of sound is done under the following
standard conditions.
1) Free field
2) Reverberant field
3) Semi reverberant field
4) Anechoic field
5) Semi anechoic field
6) Diffuse sound field

Measurement conditions . . .
1) Free field
this is completed open space where there are no
sound reflections or other modifying factors present

2) Reverberant field
In a reverberant field the sound energy at any point is
the sum of that directly radiated from the source and
sound levels reflected from adjacent surfaces.
E
i
= E
r
+ E
t
+ E
a

In a fully reverberant field all the sound energy striking
the bounding surfaces is reflected without loss.
Measurement conditions . . .

In a fully reverberant field all the sound energy striking
the bounding surfaces is reflected without loss.
This simplifies that the bounding surfaces should be
highly reflective.
3) Semi reverberant field
In a semi reverberant field the prevailing conditions
may be anywhere between free field and reverberant
field conditions.
4) Anechoic field
All the sound measured comes directly from the
source. (All incident energy striking the walls is fully
absorbed)
Measurement conditions . . .
5) Semi anechoic field
In a semi anechoic field the sound source is mounted
above a hard reflective surface.

Note: The measurements taken outdoors can be considered to
approximate to free field condition. And show reasonable
agreement with anechoic measurements provided there is no
reflective surfaces nearby.
Measurements taken indoors can be considered as approximating
to diffuse field condition. And show reasonable agreement with
reverberant field measurements.


Reference book:
Acoustics and noise control
2
nd
edition
B J Smith, R J Peters and S Owen

Practical schedule
3 Practical
2 - Outdoors
1 Industrial visit

Assignments:
Three (3) in-class assignments, each carry 10 marks.
3 for performance
7 for assignment