VARIATIONS

DEFINITION
Differences between individuals of the same species Used to describe differences in characteristics shown by organisms in the same species Due to genetic or enviromental factors

IMPORTANCE
Helps species to survive changes in the environment Species inhabit a wider range of habitats

TYPES OF VARIATION
CONTINOUS VARIATION

DISCONTINOUS VARIATION / DISCRETE VARIATION

CONTINOUS VARIATION
Characteristics with traits that show a gradual change from one extreme to the other Example:height,skin colour, body weight,intelligence Determined by the combine effect of multiple genes located at different loci (polygenic)

 Quantitive inheritance(can be measured) Normal distribution curve Bell-shaped curve

DISCONTINOUS VARIATION
Have clear-cut differences between them No-intermediate forms Controlled by one or two genes(alleles) Phenotypes are generally unaffected by environmental factors Example:blood groups,shape of the earlobe,ability to role tongue,eye colour,fingerprints, hair curly

Individuals fall into clearly-defined groups, no overlap

% of population

AB

Bar chart showing frequency distribution for the ABO blood groups

COMPARISON OF CONTINOUS AND DISCONTINOUS VARIATION

Causes of variation
GENETIC FACTORS ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

Effects of Genetic Factors on Variation

Gene reshuffling (gamete formation): Crossing over Independent Assortment Mutation Chromosomal mutation --Gene mutations

CROSSING OVER
Homologous chromosome pair up and form bivalents May occur between maternal and paternal chromosomes of the bivalents resulting in new genetic combinations

INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT
During metaphase 1,bivalents randomly orientated on spindle equator, maternal and paternal chromosomes randomly distributed to either pole The daughter cells have different combinations of maternal and paternal chromosomes Possible of 223 combinations

 Random fusion of male and female gamet during fertilisation Offspring will have a genetic composition different from its parents Creates new combinations of existing feature

 MUTATION: sudden change in the amount of DNA or structure of DNA of an organism Occur randomly and spontaneous Occur at low rate Increase by the exposure of mutagens: caffeine,formaldehyde,colchicne,pesti cides,radiations,UV light

MUTATION

 If happens in somatic cells it is not transmitted to next generation If happens in gametes its likely to be inherited Most mutations harmful Some mutations beneficial; better adapt to new environment Increases variation in population: creating new alleles

CHROMOSOMAL MUTATIONS
Changes in the number of chromosomes or in the structure of chromosomes Cause: one or more pairs of homologous chromosomes fail to separate during Anaphase 1 (non-disjunction) Gain or loss of chromosomes in the daughter cells

 If whole set failed to separate : polyploidy/ euploidy (common in plants) Aneuploidy : loss or gain one of the chromosomes Eg: Down syndromes

 Structural change: a) Deletions b) Duplications c) Inversions d) Translocation

A fragment of chromosome breaks off and is lost

A fragment of chromosome is doubled or repeated. New chromosome Has extra genetic material

A fragment of chromosome is removed. The fragment rotates through 180 C and is inserted back at the same location

A fragment of chromosome breaks off and attaches to another chromosome

GENE MUTATIONS
Point mutation
A change in the nucleotide sequence of part of a gene Changes in genetic code and order of amino acid Mistake is transcribed as mRNA. Altered mRNA carries altered information to where synthesis take place. Protein non-functional/does not efficient

 Causes genetic diseases such as sickle-cell anaemia, albinism,haemophilia

Mutagen
Mutations-causing agents Example: radiation(X-rays,uv light,gamma rays), caffeine,formaldehyde,food preservatives, pesticides, drugs,component in tobacco

Effect of environmental factors on variation

Full potential of genotype only expressed when environmental factors are optimum and not limiting Development of characteristics is dependent not only on genotype but also environment

Effects of interaction between genetic factors and environmental factors on variation

Genetic and environmental factors interact to influence the overall appearance of an organism Development of organism that dependent on the instructions encoded in DNA and environmental factors nature versus nurture

Importance of variation in the survival of a species

Better adapation to environmental conditions Survive and transmit advantageous genes in offspring Time by time survival of the fittest(Natural Selection)

 The shell color and banding patterns determined by genes The distribution of the different uniforms is determined by environment If the background is fairly uniform, the unbanded snails are numerous If the background vegetation is mottled, banded snails predominate