1 1

Quantum Mechanics
Reference:
Book 1(theory): Concepts of Modern Physics
A. Beiser
Book 2(theory): Solid State Physics
S.O.Pillai

Lecture -II
In the year 1927, Davisson and Germer conducted their famous experiment which was
the experimental verification of De-Broglie's hypothesis i.e. = h/p.
2
o
o
o
1 2eV
m v eV v
2 m
Using De-Broglie's equation
h
=
m v
= =

o
o
h 12.28
= A
2eVm V
=
Using Braggs Law: The condition for
diffraction of X ray is


where n = 1, 2, 3
For Ni d=0.91
2dsin n u =
o
A
|
And =90-/2
If
V=54 Volt
0
0
A 67 . 1
A 65 . 1
=
=

Davisson and Germer -- VERY clean nickel crystal.

Diffraction is electron scattering from Ni atoms.
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
scatter off atoms
e det.
move detector around,
see what angle electrons coming off
Ni
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e det.
Ni
Observe pattern of scattering electrons off
atoms
Looks like .
Wave!
# es
scatt. angle u
u
0
0
See peak!!
Number of electrons
( density of electrons / Intensity of electrons)
Vs
Scattering angle
5
Observations:
Intensity was stronger for certain angles
for specific accelerating voltages (i.e. for
specific electron energies)
Electrons were reflected in almost the
same way that X-rays of comparable
wavelength
Current vs accelerating voltage has a
maximum, i.e. the highest number of
electrons is scattered in a specific
direction
This cant be explained by particle-like
nature of electrons electrons scattered
on crystals behave as waves
o
111
o
X-ray
2dsin
d 0.91A; 65 50
1.65A
< >
u =
= u = =
=
12.28
1.67A
V
= =
6
This is in excellent agreement with wavelengths of
X-rays diffracted from Nickel!
If electrons are just particles, we expect a smooth monotonic dependence of
scattered intensity on angle and voltage because only elastic collisions are
involved.
10
In previous experiments many electrons were
diffracted

Will one get the same result for a single electron?

Such experiment was performed in 1949
Intensity of the electron beam was so low that only one electron at
a time collided with metal
Still diffraction pattern, and not diffuse scattering, was observed,
confirming that


Single Electron Diffraction
Q: A proton and electron have equal kinetic energies.
Compare their De-Broglie wavelengths.
Assignment:
Derive the expression for de-Broglie wavelength of electron in
each case.
(1)Non relativistic (m=m
0
):



(2)Relativistic Case: ( K.E (eV) is comparable to rest mass energy.
eV m
h
0
2
=
2 / 1
2
0
0
2
0
2
1
2
) 2 (

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
+
=
c m
eV
eV m
h
c m K K
hc

Where K is Kinetic energy and m

0
is rest mass of electron
11
12
G.P. Thompson exhibit wave nature of
high energetic electrons. e- are
produced from a heated filament F and
accelerated through a high positive
potential given to the anode A. The
whole apparatus is kept highly
evacuated. The e- beam passes through
a fine hole in a metal block B and falls
on a gold foil G of thickness 10
-8
m. The
e- passing through the foil are received
on a photographic plate P. The foil consists of very large number of microscopic crystals
oriented at random. Therefore some of them are always at the correct angles to give rise
to diffraction according to Braggs law. Hence, on processing the plate, diffraction rings
is obtained. The diameters of these rings are measured.
Let AB be a beam which has undergone a
Braggs diffraction by a small crystal in the
gold foil G, and falls on a photographic plate
at a point E at a distance r from the central
Pont C . The incident and the first order
diffracted rays make equal angle u with Bragg
plane. Let BC=L
13
From Bragg's Law, 2dsin =n
where d is the crystal lattice spacing. therefore for the first order,
d (as is small)
2sin 2
but, from the figure, 2 =tan2 =
u

= = u
u u
u u
r L
d= (1)
L r
Now, the De-Broglie wavelength associated with the moving particle is
h
= (2)
mv
Where m is the

( )
-
relativistic mass and v the velocity of the particle. In Thompsons
experiment the particles e are accelerated through a p.d. of about 15 to 60 kV.
For such energetic e the relativistic mass formula

o
2
2
o
2
2
m
is m=
v
1
c
h h
=
m v
mv
v
1
c
| |

|
\ .
=
| |

|
\ .
2
2 2 2 1/ 2
o o 2
The relativistic expression for kinetic energy is
v
K=mc m c m c (1 ) 1
c
Therefore, if the e (charge e) is accelerated from the rest through a potential of Vvolts,

=
`
)
2
2 1/ 2
o 2
2
1/ 2
2 2
o
1/
2
v
m c (1 ) 1 eV
c
v eV
(1 ) 1 1 z (3)
c m c
v=c 1 (1 z)

=
`
)
= + = +
( +

2
1/ 2
2
2
2
1/ 2 1/ 2
2 2
o o
(4)
Multiplying eq (3) and (4)
v
c 1 (1 z) (1 z)
v
1
c
z 2eV eV
=c[2z(1+ )] =c[ (1 )]
2 m c 2m c
Substituting this value

( = + +

+
1/ 2
2
o
o 2
o
h eV
in eq (2) = (1 )
2m c
2eV
m c
m c

+
This is the relativistic expression for the De-Broglie wavelength of an e-
accelerated through a high p.d of V volts. It reduces to the expression if
relativistic effect is ignored (i.e., v<<c).



Substituting the above value of in eq. (1)




Comparison of the value of d obtained in this way agreed to within 1% with
values determined by using X-rays of known wavelengths. For example, in
case of gold foil the value of obtained by the above formula was 4.08A
o

while that obtained by X-rays method was 4.06A
o
. Thus the De-Broglie
conception of matter waves was verified.
1/2
2
o
o
h eV
(1 )
2m c
2m eV

= +
o
h
2m eV
=
1/2
2
o
o
L h eV
d (1 )
r 2m c
2m eV

= +
16
For first order diffraction : n=1
From figure, 2 =R/D
Hence d= D /R
d = /2sin =/2 for small
The interference rings in Figure
were produced by sending X-rays
of wavelength =1 through a
poly-crystalline thin film of
copper (d=2.55 ) of thickness
t=1m. To produce the same set of
rings but with electrons m=10
-27
gm instead of X-rays, what kinetic
energy (in eV) should the
electrons in the incoming beam
have?
1
2
2
o
o
D h eV
d 1
R 2m c
2m eV

| |
= +
|
\ .
The diffraction patterns simulated above compare
the effects of x-rays passing through a thin foil with
those of high energy electrons passing through the
same medium. Notice how similar the patterns are to
each other when the de Broglie wavelength of an
electron beam equals the wavelength of the original
x-rays.
17
18
A SUMMARY OF DUAL ITY OF NATURE
Wave particle duality of physical objects
LIGHT
Wave nature -EM wave Particle nature -photons
Optical microscope

Interference
Convert light to electric current
Photo-electric effect
PARTICLES
Wave nature
Matter waves -electron
microscope
Particle nature
Electric current
photon-electron
collisions
Discrete (Quantum) states of confined
systems, such as atoms.