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Arithmetic Average/Normal Ratio Methods
- Arithmetic Average Method:
- Normal Ratio Method:
or
where N
i
= Average annual total rainfall at station i.
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Inverse Distance Method
Inverse Distance Method:
, i = 1, 2, , n
where D
i
= distance from index station i to the
point of estimation.
Issue: How to determine the "best" value for "b"?
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Modified Methods
Modified Normal Ratio Method:
i = 1, 2, , n
Issue: How to determine the "best" value for "b"?
Modified Inverse Distance Method:
i = 1, 2, , n
where AEi = elevation difference between the i-th index station and
the point of estimation.
a,b = constant
Issue: How to determine the "best" values for "a" and "b"?
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Optimization Methods
Minimize (Min. Absolute Deviation, MAD, Criterion)
Subject to
a
i
> 0, i = 1, 2, , n; U
j
, V
j
> 0, j =1, 2, , J
where P
ij
= rainfall amount for the j-th storm event at the i-th index station;
J = total number of storm events;
U
j
, V
j
= over- and under-estimation for event j
The above MAD objective function can be replaced by the least square criterion as
Minimize
Any other goodness-of-fit criteria we can use?
J
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Isohyetal/ Kriging Methods
Isohyetal Method:
Estimate point rainfall depth by first construct equal rainfall
contour map (see HK annual total rainfall isohyetal maps)
Kriging Method:
- A geostatistical method originally developed in mining
engineering by Krige.
- The method is appropriate for dealing with random field
having non-repeated observation at different locations in
space.
- Preserve the spatial correlation structure of observed data.
- Optimal weight factors, a
i
s , are determined to minimize
the mean-squared-error at the point of estimation.
- The by-product of the method is to produce error map of
estimation.
Areal Rainfall Analysis
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1 i
i i
P a P
Rainfall gauges provides point measurements of rainfall amount (in terms
of depth). In some hydrologic applications, spatial variation or average
depth of precipitation over a given area is needed.
Equivalent Uniform Depth (EUD): Depth of water that would result if all
of the precipitation received were uniformly distributed over the designated
area.
Methods for Estimating Mean Areal Rainfall:
- Basic Idea :
where P = EUD ; Pi = rainfall depth at station i ;
ai = weighting factor for station i , 0 s ai s 1 , and
n = total number of stations (or gauges)
Arithmetic Average Method :
where n = number of rain gauges within the designated area.
Thiessen Polygon Method:
Attempt to define the area represented by each gage in order to weigh the
effects of non-uniform rainfall distribution.
Procedure :
(1) Connecting lines of gages are drawn.
(2) Draw perpendicular bisectors of these connecting lines.
(3) Determine the area of each polygon , A
i
, where = total area
of interest
(4)
Limitations :
(1) Inflexible new polygon is needed if there is any change in the
number of gages or the position of gages.
(2) Does not consider orographic influences.
Arithmetic Average/Thiessen Polygon Methods
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Isohyetal Method/Others
Isohyetal Method
The method is generally considered to be the most accurate scheme
to compute the EUD of rainfall over a drainage area.
Procedure :
(1) Contours of equal precipitation (isohyet) are constructed.
(2) Areas between successive isohyets are measured, Ai.
(3) Average precipitation depth between isohyets are computed, Pi.
(4) The basinwide EUD of rainfall is
The procedure is subjective in the sense of interpolating precipitation depth
between gages. Usually, linear interpolation is used. The accuracy of the
analysis heavily depends on the analysts skill.
Other Methods:
Trend Surface Analysis, Kriging Method, Hypsometric Method (see Shaw,
1994, p.211), and Multiquadric Method (see Shaw, 1994, p.212).
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Examples
Depth-Area Relation
Area (km
2
)
25
50
100
200
ARF
1.00
0.96
0.91
0.85
The DAD analysis is devised to determine the greatest precipitation
amounts for various size areas and durations over different regions
and for certain seasons. The resulting DAD relationship is primarily
to be used for determining a hypothetical storm event for designing
hydraulic structures.
Area-Reduction Factor (ARF):
Allow estimating areal EUD of rainfall from point rainfall.
For Hong Kong, a recommended ARF values are (Task 2 Report
Territorial Land Drainage & Flood Control Strategy Study: Phase I,
1989, by Mott MacDonald HK Limited for HKSAR Drainage
Services Department)
DAD Reduction Relations