Basic Consideration in Process Equipment Design

Dr. A.K. Sharma

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Introduction
Setup of new plant and modification of existing units or expansion involves both technical and economic evaluations. Knowledge of the various technical subjects such as unit operations, process design, equipment design, thermodynamics, reaction kinetics etc. is a prerequisite to the establishment or development of any plant. Of these the process along with the associated equipment, governs the shape and the size of the plant.
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Design
Two aspects:
Structural design Functional design

Structural design to withstand load, pressure and whatever operating condition are, so knowledge of material of equipment become important
Structural design includes: selection of material, thickness/gauge, stress analysis, material characteristics, etc.

Functional design includes selection of equipment

specification

and

Capacity, Power, Matching other process equipment, Operation and control, etc.
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The agro-food industry

Processing involves any type of value addition to agricultural or horticultural produce and also includes processes such as grading, sorting, packaging which enhance shelf life of food products. The Industry provides vital linkages and synergies between industry and agriculture.

Difference in food and non food processing plants

Many of the elements of design are the same for food/agro plants as they are for other plants particularly those processing industrial chemicals. However, there are many significant differences, basically in the areas of equipment selection and sizing, and in working space design. These differences stem from the ways in which the processing of foods differ from the processing of industrial chemicals because of following considerations: The storage life of foods is relatively limited and strongly affected by temperature, pH, water activity, maturity, prior history and initial microbial contamination levels Very high and verifiable levels of product safety and sterility have to be provided Foods are highly susceptible to microbial attack and insect and rodent infestation
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Difference in food and non food processing plants

Enzyme-catalyzed processes are used or occur in many cases. These, like microbial growth and fermentation are very sensitive to temperature, pH, water activity, and other environmental conditions Many foods are still living organisms or biochemically active long after harvest or slaughter Living foods generate heat and consume and transform their own substance at rates, which are strongly temperature dependent. Rates of heat generation as functions of temperature for various F&V and for chickens In some cases foods (e.g. ripening cheeses) contain active living microorganisms, which induce chemical transformations for long periods of time Crop-based food raw materials may only be available in usable form on a seasonal basis. Therefore, design may involves the modeling of crop availability Raw material are highly variable and that variability is enhanced by the ageing of raw material and uncontrollable variation in climatic conditions

PROCESSING AND VALUE ADDITION

HARVESTED BIOMASS
(RAW/FRESH FOOD MATERIALS)

CLEANING GRADING CONDITIONING STORAGE (IF NEEDED) PROCESSING

PRIMARY
PADDY INTO RICE WHEAT INTO FLOUR PULSE INTO DAL AND SO ON

SECONDARY
RICE INTO RICE FLOUR TOMATO INTO KETCHUP DAL INTO BESAN AND SO ON

TERTIARY
COOKING OF RICE MEAT PREPARATION TEA MAKING AND SO ON

AT EVERY STAGE OF PROCESSING VALUE IS ADDED TO THE PRODUCT

Flow diagram of value addition to the harvested biomass of plant and animal origin
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Processing?
Combination of all forms of physical processing into a small number of basic operations, which are called unit operations. Agro-food processes may seem bewildering in their diversity, but careful analysis will show that these complicated and differing processes can be broken down into a small number of unit operations. For example, consider heating of which innumerable instances occur in every agro-food industry. There are many reasons for heating and cooling - for example, the baking of bread, the freezing of meat, the tempering of oils.
But in process engineering, the prime considerations are
firstly, the extent of the heating or cooling that is required and secondly, the conditions under which this must be accomplished.

Thus, this physical process qualifies to be called a unit operation. It is called 'heat transfer'.

The essential concept is therefore to divide physical agro-food processes into basic unit operations, each of which stands alone and depends on coherent physical principles.
For example, heat transfer is a unit operation and the fundamental physical principle underlying it is that heat energy will be transferred spontaneously from hotter to colder bodies.
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Important unit operations in Agro-food industry

material handling, drying and storage , size reduction/milling, heat transfer, evaporation, contact equilibrium processes (which include
distillation, extraction, gas absorption, crystallization, and membrane processes),

mechanical separations fluid flow and mixing.

(which include filtration, centrifugation, sedimentation and sieving),

Process Equipment Design

M.V. Joshi
2nd edition MacMillan India Ltd

10

Satisfactory performance & reliability of equipment

Optimum process conditions Appropriate material of construction Strength & rigidity of components Satisfactory performance of mechanism Reliable method of fabrication Ease of operation & control Ease of maintenance & repair Safety requirement
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Satisfactory performance & reliability of equipment

Optimum process conditions (f) Appropriate material of construction (f/s) Strength & rigidity of components (s/f) Satisfactory performance of mechanism (f/s) Reliable method of fabrication (s) Ease of operation & control (f/s) Ease of maintenance & repair (f/s) Safety requirement (f/s)
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General Design Procedure

Specifying the problem precisely Analyzing the probable solutions Applying process principles and theory of machines satisfying the conditions of problem Selecting material & stress to suit processing conditions Evaluating & optimizing the design Preparing drawing & specification
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Process Equipment Design

M.V. Joshi
2nd edition MacMillan India Ltd

Chapter 1 Page 1-6

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Assignment 1 Functional Design

Ginger peeling

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Ginger peeling
Functional requirement
Process should remove as much skin from ginger High peeling efficiency is associated with high material loss

Peeling efficiency
(X-Y)/X

Material loss
[(Wb-X) - (Wa-Y)] / Wb
X-theoretical weight of skin on ginger, g Y-Weight of skin removed by hand trimming, g Wb-total weight of ginger before peeling, g Wa-total weight of ginger after peeling, g
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General Design Procedure

Specifying the problem precisely Analyzing the probable solutions Applying process principles and theory of machines satisfying the conditions of problem Selecting material & stress to suit processing conditions Evaluating & optimizing the design Preparing drawing & specification
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General Design Procedure

Specifying the problem precisely
Irregular shape & size Cells underlying the skin contains essential ginger oil Excessive or careless removal of peel will result in damaging of these cells leading to the loss of the essential oil and its economical value

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General Design Procedure

Analyzing the probable solutions
Traditional, advanced and modern practices
Rubbing between fiber i.e. gunny bags etc Hand peeling with knife Chemical methods i.e. caustic lye Flash steam Flame

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General Design Procedure

Applying process principles and theory of machines satisfying the conditions of problem
Irregular shape & size Cells underlying the skin contains essential ginger oil Excessive or careless removal of peel will result in damaging of these cells leading to the loss of the essential oil and its economical value
Rubbing between fiber i.e. gunny bags etc Hand peeling with knife
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General Design Procedure

Applying process principles and theory of machines satisfying the conditions of problem Brush-type ginger peeling machine
Contact time Contact surface Reaching material (brush) & mechanism Power/drive system

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General Design Procedure

Specifying the problem precisely Analyzing the probable solutions Applying process principles and theory of machines satisfying the conditions of problem Selecting material & stress to suit processing conditions Evaluating & optimizing the design Preparing drawing & specification
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Ginger peeling machine-Brush type

Abrasion unit Power transmission system Belt tensioner Hopper and side cover Frame

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Ginger peeling machine-Brush type

Abrasion unit Power transmission system Belt tensioner Hopper and side cover Frame

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Ginger peeling machine-Brush type

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Ginger peeling machine-Brush type

SN 1 Parts

Hopper

2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Pulley
Plummer block Side flap Belt Brushes Idler Frame V-Belt pulley V-Belt pulley

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12

V-Belt pulley
Shaft
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Ginger peeling machine-Brush type

SN 1 Parts Material
M.S.

Hopper

2
3 4 5 6 7

Pulley
Plummer block Side flap Belt Brushes Idler

C.I. 25
C.I. M.S. Sheet Canvas 30 Wide Steel 32 Gauge G.I. Pipe 3

8
9 10 11 Dimensions in CM 12

Frame
V-Belt pulley V-Belt pulley V-Belt pulley Shaft

M.S. Angle 4x4

C.I. 30 C.I. 7.5 C.I. 20.3 M.S. 2.54
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General Design Procedure

Specifying the problem precisely Analyzing the probable solutions Applying process principles and theory of machines satisfying the conditions of problem Selecting material & stress to suit processing conditions Evaluating & optimizing the design Preparing drawing & specification
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Abrasion Unit: Two Endless belts 370x30x1 cm giving effective abrasive surface area of 135x30 each, which mounted on a 25 cm diameter and 35 cm wide case iron flat pulleys. The brushes were made by threading 20 steel wires of 32 gauge at a spacing of 1.9x1.9 cm, and 2 cm length

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Power Transmission System:

Power provided by 1.0 hp, 1500 rpm single phase motor through a V-drive. The rpm reduced by 1500 to 100 for the pulley moving the belt in downward direction and 65 for the other pulley moving the belt in upward direction. The power from the motor, having a 7.5 cm diameter B-groove pulley was transmitted to a jack pulley with a diameter of 30 cm. the power from another jack pulley with a diameter of 7.5 cm was transferred to the main shaft with a pulley of 30 cm. Another pulley of 7.5 cm diameter was mounted on this shaft to transfer the power to the other shaft, moving the brush belt in upward direction through a 20.3 cm dia, pulley using a Vbelt and idler pulley. Thus, the linear velocities of both belts moving downward and upward direction were 114 and 85 cm/s respectively
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Belt tensioner: A belt thensioner provided at both sides of vertical frame to maintain a proper tension in the moving belt at minimum friction. These were made up of galvanized iron piper of 2.5 cm dia, and 60 cm long each. The tensioning devices were provided with the mechanism of moving in and out with the help of a bolt

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Hopper: A 50-kg capacity hopper made of 20 gauge mild steel sheet provided at the tip to feed unpeeled ginger between the two belts. To restrict the throw of ginger from sides of the brush belt, side covers were provided

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Frame: The whole unit was fixed and supported on M.S. angle of 38x38x6.35 mm. The total dimension of the machine 140 cm long, 60 cm wide and 250 cm high

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a Good Design Engineer

A good general knowledge of farm practices, field operations and engineering aptitude Familiarity with the latest developments in Agriculture, country/acceptable Standards A thorough knowledge in the fundamentals of engineering science Knowledge of Work shop practices Knowledge of Engineering materials Knowledge of Manufacturing costs Knowledge of Service problems Knowledge of sales problems, domestic and export, and general merchandizing and part sales
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Fabrication techniques
Economical and reliable fabrication technique must be adopted to manufacture the various components of a machine or an equipment The selection of materials and appropriate choice of the method of fabrication do form an important aspect, influencing the design considerations Fabrication techniques:
To give approximate shape to the material i.e. casting, forming and welding To impart the final precise dimensions and ensure the desired surface finish i.e. planing, shaping, turning, milling, drilling, boring, reaming, broaching, grinding, honing, polishing, electroplating, coating, etc.
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Equipment classification
Classification based on the particular type of unit operation. Each equipment is therefore designed for carrying out a specific unit operation such as distillation, evaporation, solid-liquid separation, material handling etc, which require similar design procedures

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Equipment classification
1. Pressure vessel group: Equipment has a cylindrical or spherical vessel as the main component, which has to withstand variations in pressure and temperature, in addition to other loading conditions
IS 2825 IS 2002 IS 2041 Code for unfired pressure vessels Steel plates for pressure vessels for intermediate & high temperature service including boilers Steel plates for pressure vessels used at moderate and low temperature - specification

IS 11630 Method for ultrasonic testing of steel plates for pressure vessels and special applications
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Equipment classification
2. Structural group: Consist equipment or component which are stationary and have to sustain only dead loads. They are generally made up of structural sections and must satisfy conditions of elastic and structural stability
IS 875_1 Dead Loads-Unit Weights-Building Materials & Stored Materials IS 875_2 Imposed Loads IS 875_3 Wind Loads IS 875_5 Special Loads and Combinations

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Equipment classification
3. Group involving rotational motion: Consist equipment or component where a rotational motion is necessary to satisfy process requirements. A drive system and power supply are essential features. Consideration of torque, dynamic stresses, apart from other loading conditions form the basis of design

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Equipment classification
Each equipment may not strictly belong to only one group, but may have features involving combination of the above groups. In such cases it may be possible to design components belonging to each group independently and then combine them to form a complete equipment

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Power for rotational motion

Often involves assessment of power requirements. In arriving at the maximum horse power an analysis should be made of the mechanical operation of the equipment in terms of torque at the motor shaft, and also the speed requirements

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Power for rotational motion

Torque
Starting torque
required to overcome static friction and produce motion

Accelerating torque
required to accelerate the driven equipment to full speed

Running torque
required to drive the equipment or machine under normal conditions at a specified speed

Speed
at constant speed at two or three speeds at variable speeds
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Power for rotational motion

Mechanical loads
Friction loads
Static or dynamic friction is the main component responsible for torque requirements. Equipments subject to such loads are Conveyers, Grinders, Rotating filters, Rotating driers, etc

Fluid viscosity loads

Viscous friction between layers of fluid is responsible for torque Equipment with fluid viscosity loads are Agitators, Fans, Pumps, etc

Accelerating loads
In certain loads accelerating motions forms a major portion of the torque apart from frictional torque Elevators, Cranes, etc
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Power for rotational motion

Horse power
2 N T H.P.= -----------75 x 60 Where, T-Torque in Kg-m N- R.P.M. Since during the operation of any equipment, both the torque and speed are likely to vary according to the loading conditions, it is necessary to draw a horse power duty cycle, showing the variation of horse power requirement with time of operation. Based on this it is possible to determine the maximum power required as well as the rated power of the prime mover, which usually consists of an electric motor or a turbine

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Process Equipment Design

M.V. Joshi
2nd edition MacMillan India Ltd

Chapter 1 Page 1-6

48

Process?
A particular course of action intended to achieve a result (Noun)

A sustained phenomenon or one marked by gradual changes through a series of states (Noun)
Deal with in a routine way (Verb) Subject to a process or treatment, with the aim of readying for some purpose, improving, or remedying a condition (Verb)
"process cheese"; "process fruits"

Shape, form, or improve a material (Verb)

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Engineering?
The practical application of science to commerce or industry (Noun) The discipline dealing with the art or science of applying scientific knowledge to practical problems
(Noun)

Design as an engineer

(Verb)

"He engineered the water supply project

Technology in agricultural processing is the application of that which is exact and measurable to an unknown situation so that, for any given set of conditions, the result will always be the same.
"In the freezing and storage of fresh concentrated fruit juices, the principles of refrigeration are applied to the experimentally determined characteristics of the product
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The study of Process engineering?

An attempt to combine all forms of physical processing into a small number of basic operations, which are called unit operations. Agro-food processes may seem bewildering in their diversity, but careful analysis will show that these complicated and differing processes can be broken down into a small number of unit operations. For example, consider heating of which innumerable instances occur in every agro-food industry. There are many reasons for heating and cooling - for example, the baking of bread, the freezing of meat, the tempering of oils.
But in process engineering, the prime considerations are
firstly, the extent of the heating or cooling that is required and secondly, the conditions under which this must be accomplished.

Thus, this physical process qualifies to be called a unit operation. It is called 'heat transfer'.

The essential concept is therefore to divide physical agro-food processes into basic unit operations, each of which stands alone and depends on coherent physical principles.
For example, heat transfer is a unit operation and the fundamental physical principle underlying it is that heat energy will be transferred spontaneously from hotter to colder bodies.
51

Important unit operations in Agro-food industry

material handling, drying and storage , size reduction/milling, heat transfer, evaporation, contact equilibrium processes (which include
distillation, extraction, gas absorption, crystallization, and membrane processes),

mechanical separations fluid flow and mixing.

(which include filtration, centrifugation, sedimentation and sieving),

52

Important unit operations in Agro-food industry

material handling, drying and storage , size reduction/milling, heat transfer, evaporation, contact equilibrium processes (which include
distillation, extraction, gas absorption, crystallization, and membrane processes),

mechanical separations fluid flow and mixing.

(which include filtration, centrifugation, sedimentation and sieving),

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Overall view of an Engineering Process

Using a material balance and an energy balance, a agro-food engineering process can be viewed overall or as a series of units (unit operation). The unit operation can be represented by a box. Into the box go the raw materials and energy, out of the box come the desired products, by-products, wastes and energy. The equipment within the box will enable the required changes to be made with as little waste of materials and energy as possible. In other words, the desired products are required to be maximized and the undesired by-products and wastes minimized. Control over the process is exercised by regulating the flow of energy, or of materials, or of both.

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Overall view of an Engineering Process

Using a material balance and an energy balance, a agro-food engineering process can be viewed overall or as a series of units (unit operation). The unit operation can be represented by a box. Into the box go the raw materials and energy, out of the box come the desired products, by-products, wastes and energy. The equipment within the box will enable the required changes to be made with as little waste of materials and energy as possible. In other words, the desired products are required to be maximized and the undesired by-products and wastes minimized. Control over the process is exercised by regulating the flow of energy, or of materials, or of both.

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Material balance and an Energy balance

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Material balance and an Energy balance

The law of conservation of mass leads to what is called a mass or a material balance. Mass In = Mass Out + Mass Stored
Raw Materials = Products+Wastes+Stored Materials. mR = mP + mW + mS
(where (sigma) denotes the sum of all terms).

Total Raw Materials mR = mR1 + mR2 + mR3 Total Products mP = mP1 + mP2 + mP3 Total Waste Products mW= mW1 + mW2 + mW3 Total Stored Products. mS = mS1 + mS2 + mS3 If there are no chemical changes occurring in the plant, the law of conservation of mass will apply also to each component, so that for component A: mA in entering materials = mA in the exit materials + mA stored in plant.

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Method for preparing Process Flow Chart

Flow charts are schematic representation of the production process, involving
Various input resources, Conversion steps (Unit operations) Output and Recycle streams.
Raw material

Inputs

Process Step 1 Waste/ Byproduct

Inputs Process Step 2 Waste/ Byproduct

The process flow may be constructed stepwise i.e. by identifying the inputs / output / wastes at each stage of the process.

Output

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Method for preparing Process Flow Chart

Raw material Inputs Inputs Process Step 1 Process Step 2 Output
Inputs include raw materials, water, steam, energy (electricity, etc)

Waste/ Byproduct Waste/ Byproduct

Wastes/by-products could include solids, water, chemicals, energy etc. For each process steps (unit operation) as well as for an entire plant, energy and mass balance diagram should be drawn.

Output of the process is the final product produced in the plant.

Process step/ Unit operation should be sequentially drawn from raw material to finished product. Intermediates and any other byproduct should also be represented. The operating process parameters such as temperature, pressure, % concentration, etc. should be represented. The flow rate of various streams should also be represented in appropriate units like m3/h or kg/h. In case of batch process the total cycle time should be included. 59

Wheat-Processing- Milling (Contd)

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PROCESSING AND VALUE ADDITION

HARVESTED BIOMASS
(RAW/FRESH FOOD MATERIALS)

CLEANING GRADING CONDITIONING STORAGE (IF NEEDED) PROCESSING

PRIMARY
PADDY INTO RICE WHEAT INTO FLOUR PULSE INTO DAL AND SO ON

SECONDARY
RICE INTO RICE FLOUR TOMATO INTO KETCHUP DAL INTO BESAN AND SO ON

TERTIARY
COOKING OF RICE MEAT PREPARATION TEA MAKING AND SO ON

Estimated value additions to the raw food materials through primary and secondary/ tertiary processing in India are 75% and 25% respectively.

AT EVERY STAGE OF PROCESSING VALUE IS ADDED TO THE PRODUCT

Flow diagram of value addition to the harvested biomass of plant and animal origin
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Agricultural processing
Any procedure or treatment that prepare farm products for utilization or preservation
Notable examples
Drying, handling, storing farm crops Preparation of animal feeds Canning or freezing food products

Conditioning or any other operation that maintains or improves the quality of farm products or
Examples of conditioning
Drying grain before grinding Cooling milk prior to separating Scalding vegetables in preparation for freezing

Changes their form or characteristics

Milling/grinding grains for food/feed Separating cream from milk Freezing vegetables
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Agricultural processing
Processing and value addition in the production area for:
Loss prevention Income generation Better quality products By-products utilization Less transportation

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Unit operations & Equipments

material handling, mechanical separations (sieving), size reduction/milling, drying

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