The Nervous System

Chapter 44

Nervous System Organization

All animals must be able to respond to environmental stimuli -Sensory receptors = Detect stimulus -Motor effectors = Respond to it -The nervous system links the two -Consists of neurons and supporting cells
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Nervous System Organization

Vertebrates have three types of neurons -Sensory neurons (afferent neurons) carry impulses to central nervous system (CNS) -Motor neurons (efferent neurons) carry impulses from CNS to effectors (muscles and glands) -Interneurons (association neurons) provide more complex reflexes and associative functions (learning and memory)
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Nervous System Organization

The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of sensory and motor neurons -Somatic NS stimulates skeletal muscles -Autonomic NS stimulates smooth and cardiac muscles, as well as glands -Sympathetic and parasympathetic NS -Counterbalance each other
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CNS

Brain and Spinal Cord

Sensory Pathways

Motor Pathways

PNS

Sensory neurons registering external stimuli

Sensory neurons registering external stimuli

Somatic nervous system (voluntary)

Autonomic nervous system (involuntary)

Sympathetic nervous system "fight or flight"

Parasympathetic nervous system "rest and repose"

central nervous system (CNS) peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Nervous System Organization

Neurons have the same basic structure -Cell body = Enlarged part containing nucleus -Dendrites = Short, cytoplasmic extensions that receive stimuli -Axon = Single, long extension that conducts impulses away from cell body
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Nervous System Organization

Nervous System Organization

Neurons are supported both structurally and functionally by cells called neuroglia -Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes produce myelin sheaths surrounding axons -In the CNS, myelinated axons form white matter -Dendrites/cell bodies form gray matter -In the PNS, myelinated axons are bundled to form nerves 9

Nervous System Organization

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Nerve Impulse Transmission

A potential difference exists across every cells plasma membrane -Negative pole = Cytoplasmic side -Positive pole = Extracellular fluid side When a neuron is not being stimulated, it maintains a resting potential -Ranges from -40 to -90 millivolts (mV) -Average about -70 mV
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Nerve Impulse Transmission

The inside of the cell is more negatively charged than the outside because of: 1. Sodium-potassium pump = Brings two K+ into cell for every three Na+ it pumps out

2. Ion leakage channels = Allow more K+ to diffuse out than Na+ to diffuse in
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Nerve Impulse Transmission

There is a buildup of positive charge outside and negative charge inside the membrane -This electrical potential is an attractive force to bring K+ ions back into the cell -Balance between diffusional and electrical forces leads to the equilibrium potential The resting membrane potential can be viewed using a voltmeter and two electrodes
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Nerve Impulse Transmission

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Nerve Impulse Transmission

There are two types of potentials: -Graded potentials and action potentials

Graded potentials are small transient changes in membrane potential due to activation of gated ion channels -Most are closed in the normal resting cell
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Nerve Impulse Transmission

Chemically-gated or ligand-gated channels -Ligands are hormones or neurotransmitters

-Induce opening and cause changes in cell membrane permeability

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Nerve Impulse Transmission

Depolarization makes the membrane potential more positive, whereas a hyperpolarization makes it more negative -These small changes result in graded potentials -Can reinforce or negate each other Summation is the ability of graded potentials to combine
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Nerve Impulse Transmission

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Nerve Impulse Transmission

Action potentials result when depolarization reaches the threshold potential The action potential is caused by voltagegated ion channels -Two different channels are used: -Voltage-gated Na+ channels -Voltage-gated K+ channels
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Nerve Impulse Transmission

When the threshold voltage is reached, sodium channels open rapidly -Transient influx of Na+ causes the membrane to depolarize In contrast, potassium channel opens slowly -Efflux of K+ repolarizes the membrane
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Nerve Impulse Transmission

The action potential has three phases: -Rising, falling and undershoot Action potentials are always separate, all-ornone events with the same amplitude -Do not add up or interfere with each other The intensity of a stimulus is coded by the frequency, not amplitude, of action potentials
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Nerve Impulse Transmission

Each action potential, in its rising phase, reflects a reversal in membrane polarity -Positive charges due to influx of Na+ can depolarize the adjacent region to threshold -And so the next region produces its own action potential -Meanwhile, the previous region repolarizes back to the resting membrane potential
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Nerve Impulse Transmission

Two ways to increase velocity of conduction: 1. Axon has a large diameter -Less resistance to current flow -Found primarily in invertebrates 2. Axon is myelinated -Action potential is only produced at the nodes of Ranvier -Impulse jumps from node to node -Saltatory conduction
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Nerve Impulse Transmission

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Synapses
Synapses are intercellular junctions -Presynaptic cell transmits action potential -Postsynaptic cell receives it Two basic types: electrical and chemical Electrical synapses involve direct cytoplasmic connections between the two cells formed by gap junctions -Relatively rare in vertebrates
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Synapses
Chemical synapses have a synaptic cleft between the two cells

-End of presynaptic cell contains synaptic vesicles packed with neurotransmitters

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Synapses
Action potential triggers influx of Ca2+ -Synaptic vesicles fuse with cell membrane -Neurotransmitter is released by exocytosis -Diffuses to other side of cleft and binds to chemical- or ligand-gated receptor proteins -Neurotransmitter action is terminated by enzymatic cleavage or cellular uptake
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Synapses

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Neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine (ACh) -Crosses the synapse between a motor neuron and a muscle fiber -Neuromuscular junction

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Neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine (ACh) -Binds to ligand-gated receptor in the postsynaptic membrane -Produces a depolarization called an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) -Stimulates muscle contraction -Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) degrades ACh -Causes muscle relaxation 33

Neurotransmitters
Amino acids -Glutamate is the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the vertebrate CNS -Glycine and GABA (g-aminobutyric acid) are inhibitory neurotransmitters -Open ligand-gated channels for Cl -Produce a hyperpolarization called an inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) 34

Neurotransmitters

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Neurotransmitters (Cont.)

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Neurotransmitters
Biogenic amines -Epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine are responsible for the fight or flight response -Dopamine is used in some areas of the brain that control body movements -Serotonin is involved in the regulation of sleep
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Neurotransmitters
Neuropeptides -Substance P is released from sensory neurons activated by painful stimuli -Intensity of pain perception depends on enkephalins and endorphins Nitric oxide (NO) -A gas ; produced as needed from arginine -Causes smooth muscle relaxation 38

Synaptic Integration
Integration of EPSPs (depolarization) and ISPSs (hyperpolarization) occurs on the neuronal cell body -Small EPSPs add together to bring the membrane potential closer to the threshold -IPSPs subtract from the depolarizing effect of EPSPs -And will therefore deter the membrane potential from reaching threshold
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Synaptic Integration

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Synaptic Integration
There are two ways that the membrane can reach the threshold voltage -Spatial summation -Many different dendrites produce EPSPs -Temporal summation -One dendrite produces repeated EPSPs
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Drug Addiction
Prolonged exposure to a stimulus may cause cells to lose the ability to respond to it -This process is called habituation -The cell decreases the number of receptors because there is an abundance of neurotransmitters

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Drug Addiction
Cocaine affects neurons in the brains pleasure pathways (limbic system) -Binds dopamine transporters and prevents the reuptake of dopamine -Dopamine survives longer in the synapse and fires pleasure pathways more and more -Prolonged exposure triggers the limbic system neurons to reduce receptor numbers -The cocaine user is now addicted 43

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Drug Addiction
Nicotine binds directly to a specific receptor on postsynaptic neurons of the brain -Brain adjusts to prolonged exposure by turning down the volume in two ways: 1. Making fewer nicotine receptors 2. Altering the pattern of activation of the nicotine receptors
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The Central Nervous System

Sponges are only major phylum without nerves Cnidarians have the simplest nervous system -Neurons linked to each other in a nerve net -No associative activity Free-living flatworms (phylum Platyhelminthes) are simplest animals with associative activity -Two nerve cords run down the body -Permit complex muscle control
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Vertebrate Brains
All vertebrate brains have three basic divisions: -Hindbrain or rhombencephalon -Midbrain or mesencephalon -Forebrain or prosencephalon In fishes, -Hindbrain = Largest portion -Midbrain = Processes visual information -Forebrain = Processes olfactory information
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Vertebrate Brains

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Vertebrate Brains
The relative sizes of different brain regions have changed as vertebrates evolved -Forebrain became the dominant feature

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Vertebrate Brains
Forebrain is composed of two elements: -Diencephalon -Thalamus: Integration and relay center -Hypothalamus: Participates in basic drives & emotions; controls pituitary gland -Telencephalon (end brain) -Devoted largely to associative activity -Called the cerebrum in mammals
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Cerebrum
The increase in brain size in mammals reflects the great enlargement of the cerebrum -Split into right and left cerebral hemispheres, which are connected by a tract called the corpus callosum -Each hemisphere receives sensory input from the opposite side -Hemispheres are divided into: frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital lobes
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Cerebrum

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Cerebrum
Cerebral cortex -Outer layer of the cerebrum -Contains about 10% of all neurons in brain -Highly convoluted surface -Increases threefold the surface area of the human brain -Divided into three regions, each with a specific function
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Cerebrum
Cerebral cortex -Primary motor cortex: Movement control -Primary somatosensory cortex: Sensory control -Association cortex: Higher mental functions Basal ganglia -Aggregates of neuron cell bodies -Form islands of grey matter within the 55 cerebrums white matter

Cerebrum

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Cerebrum

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Other Brain Structures

Thalamus -Integrates visual, auditory and somatosensory information Hypothalamus -Integrates visceral activities -Controls pituitary gland -Forms limbic system, with hippocampus and amygdala -Responsible for emotional responses 58

Complex Functions of the Brain

Sleep and arousal -One section of reticular formation controls consciousness and alertness -Reticular-activating system controls both sleep and the waking state -Brain state can be monitored by means of an electroencephalogram (EEG) -Records electrical activity
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Complex Functions of the Brain

Language -Left hemisphere is dominant hemisphere -Adept at sequential reasoning Spatial recognition -Right hemisphere is adept at spatial reasoning -Primarily involved in musical ability
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Complex Functions of the Brain

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Complex Functions of the Brain

Memory -Appears dispersed across the brain -Short-term memory is stored in the form of transient neural excitations -Long-term memory appears to involve structural changes in neural connections

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Complex Functions of the Brain

Alzheimer disease is a condition where memory and thought become dysfunctional -Two causes have been proposed 1. Nerve cells are killed from the outside in -External protein: b-amyloid 2. Nerve cells are killed from the inside out -Internal proteins: tau (t)
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Spinal Cord
The spinal cord is a cable of neurons extending from the brain down through the backbone

-Enclosed and protected by the vertebral column and the meninges

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Spinal Cord
It serves as the bodys information highway -Relays messages between the body and the brain It also functions in reflexes -The knee-jerk reflex is monosynaptic -However, most reflexes in vertebrates involve a single interneuron
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The Peripheral Nervous System

The PNS consists of nerves and ganglia -Nerves are bundles of axons bound by connective tissue -Ganglia are aggregates of neuron cell bodies
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The Peripheral Nervous System

Sensory neurons: -Axons enter the dorsal surface of the spinal cord and form dorsal root of spinal nerve -Cell bodies are grouped outside the spinal cord in dorsal root ganglia Motor neurons: -Axons leave from the ventral surface and form ventral root of spinal nerve -Cell bodies are located in the spinal cord
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The Somatic Nervous System

Somatic motor neurons stimulate the skeletal muscles to contract -In response to conscious command or reflex actions The antagonist of the muscle is inhibited by hyperpolarization (IPSPs) of spinal motor neurons
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The Autonomic Nervous System

Composed of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions, plus the medulla oblongata In both, efferent motor pathway has 2 neurons -Preganglionic neuron: exits the CNS and synapses at an autonomic ganglion -Postganglionic neuron: exits the ganglion and regulates visceral effectors -Smooth or cardiac muscle or glands 71

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The Autonomic Nervous System

Sympathetic division -Preganglionic neurons originate in the thoracic and lumbar regions of spinal cord -Most axons synapse in two parallel chains of ganglia right outside the spinal cord Parasympathetic division -Preganglionic neurons originate in the brain and sacral regions of spinal cord -Axons terminate in ganglia near or even within internal organs 73

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The Autonomic Nervous System

Autonomic effects are mediated by the action of G protein-coupled receptors -The receptor is activated by binding to its ligand (Ach, for example) -The G protein is activated -It activates the effector protein

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The Autonomic Nervous System

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