E_English Grammar Course

LECTURE 4 The Complex Sentence

Issues
1.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Subordination
Classifications of subordinate clauses Subordinators Nominal clauses Adverbial clauses Comparative and Comment clauses

1/1

1 Subordination
Subordination
- Non-symmetrical relation held between two clauses: one clause is a constituent/ part of the other

1/2

1 Subordination
Subordination
i.e. one clause is relation held Non-symmetrical -Non-symmetrical relation, between two clauses: one clause is a constituent/ part of the other

1 2 21 [I like John [because John likes me] ] 1 1 [superordinate/ independent/ main clause ] 2 2 [subordinate/ dependent clause]

1/3

1 Subordination
Subordination
Hierarchy of clauses

XYZ( I think [ that you can do it { if you try} ] ) S V O A X = superodinate to Y Y = subordinate to X Y & Z = dependent clause X = independent clause

2/1

Classifications of subordinate clauses

Classifications of subordinate clauses

By structural type

By functional type

2/2

Classifications of subordinate clauses

By structural type

Finite clause

Nonfinite clause
Verbless clause

2/3

Classifications of subordinate clauses

By structural type

Finite clause

Nonfinite clause
- contains a subject and a predicate - verb phrase having tense, person & number concord, Verbless clause& mood

2/4

Classifications of subordinate clauses

Finite clause Nonfinite clause Infinitive with to Infinitive without to -ing participle -ed participle

By structural type

2/5

Classifications of subordinate clauses

Finite clause Nonfinite clause Infinitive with to -ing participle

By structural type

Without S: With S:

Infinitive without to -ed participle The best thing would be to tell everybody. The best thing would be for you to tell everybody.

2/6

Classifications of subordinate clauses

Finite clause Nonfinite clause Infinitive with to Without S: With S: -ing participle

By structural type

Infinitive without -ed the participle Leaving the roomto , he tripped over mat. Her aunt having left the room, I declared my passionate love for Celia..

2/7

Classifications of subordinate clauses

Finite clause
Nonfinite clause Infinitive with to Infinitive without to Without S: With S: -ing participle -ed participle

By structural type

All I did was hit him on the head. Rather than John do it, Id prefer to give the job to Mary.

2/8

Classifications of subordinate clauses

Finite clause
Nonfinite clause Infinitive with to Infinitive without to
Without S: With S:

By structural type

-ing participle -ed participle

Covered in snow, he looked like a snowman. We left the room and went home, the job finished.

2/9

Classifications of subordinate clauses

By structural type Finite clause Nonfinite clause

Verbless clause
1. Ellipsis of the verb be - Dozens of people died in the accident, many of them children. - Whether right or wrong, he always dominates the arguments.

2/10

Classifications of subordinate clauses

By structural type Finite clause Nonfinite clause

Verbless clause
2. Reduction of non-finite clauses - Too nervous to reply, he stared at the book in front of him and dared not look up.

2/11

Classifications of subordinate clauses

By function Nominal clause Adverbial clause Comparative clause

Comment clause

3/1

3
Subordinating conjunctions

Subordinators
Simple subordinators Compound subordinators

Correlative subordinators

3/2

3
Subordinating conjunctions

Subordinators
Simple subordinators after, though, although, as, Compound subordinators because, before, if, once since, that, until, when where, while, etc. Correlative subordinators

3/3

3
Subordinating conjunctions

Subordinators
Simple subordinators Compound subordinators - ending with that: in that, so that, such that - ending with optional that: Correlative now (that), subordinators provided (that), supposing (that), seeing (that) - ending with as: so far as, as long as, so as (to do sth) - ending with than: sooner than, rather than - others: as if, as though, in case

3/4

3
Subordinating conjunctions

Subordinators
Simple subordinators Compound subordinators

Correlative subordinators

if then, although yet, as as, so as, so that no sooner than, more/ less than, the the, whether or

3/5

3
Other indicators of subordination

Subordinators
Wh-element initial markers Subject-operator inversion No marker

3/6

3
Other indicators of subordination

Subordinators
Wh-element initial markers

Subject-operator inversion
I dont know who knocked at the door last night. No marker

3/7

3
Other indicators of subordination

Subordinators
Wh-element initial markers

Subject-operator inversion
No marker Had it not been for your help, I would have died.

3/8

3
Other indicators of subordination

Subordinators
Wh-element initial markers Subject-operator inversion No marker

1. nominal clause e.g. I suppose (that) youre right. 2. comment clause e.g. Youre right, I suppose.

4/1

4
Finite
that clause

Nominal clauses
Nominal Clauses Non-finite
to-infinitive nominal clause nominal ing clause

wh-interrogative clause

Yes - No interrogative clause

Nominal relative clause

bare infinitive

4/2

4
that clause

Nominal clauses
Finite Nominal Clauses

wh-interrogative clause

Yes - No interrogative clause

Nominal relative clause

- S: That you were wrong is undeniable. - Od: I knew that I was wrong. - Cs: The problem is that he refuses to speak in court. - Appositive: The fact that he hates English makes it hard for him to study it. - Cadj: Im sure that things will improve.

4/3

Nominal clauses
Finite Nominal Clauses
that clause

wh-interrogative clause
Yes - No interrogative clause

- Function as S, Od, Cs, Ap, Cadj, & Cprep (They havent decided on who wins the cup.) - Leave a gap of unknown information

Nominal relative clause

4/4

Nominal clauses
Finite Nominal Clauses
that clause

wh-interrogative clause

- Is formed with if/ whether e.g. Do you know if/ whether the teacher has come yet?

Yes - No interrogative clause

Nominal relative clause

4/5

4
that clause

Nominal clauses
Finite Nominal Clauses

- S: What he is pursuing is fame. - Od: I want to see whoever in charge of this department. wh-interrogative clause - Oi: She gave whoever came into the store a handful of sweets. - Cs: University is where you train for your Yes - No interrogative clause future career. - Co: You can call me whatever you like. - Ap: Tell me your nickname, that is, the Nominal relative clause way your friends often call you. - Cprep: Vote for whichever candidate you like.

4/6

Nominal clauses

Non-finite nominal clauses to-infinitive nominal clause - S: To become an MC has always nominal ing clause
been my dream. - Od: John wanted her to open the door. - Cs: My wish is to stay here one more week. - Ap: His ambition to be a famous writer was fulfilled. - Cadj: Im glad to help you.

bare infinitive

4/7

Nominal clauses

Non-finite nominal clauses to-infinitive nominal clause - Function as S, Od, Cs, Ap, Cprep, nominal ing clause
& Cadj - Genitive case in formal style e.g. Im surprised at his making that mistake. - Objective or common case: e.g. Im surprised at him making that mistake.

bare infinitive

4/8

Nominal clauses

Non-finite nominal clauses to-infinitive nominal clause - to is optional in case of do proform.

E.g. All I did was (to) turn off the gas.

nominal ing clause

bare infinitive

- bare infinitive is obligatory when the infinitive clause is initial E.g. Turn off the gas was all I did.

5/1

5
Time Place

Adverbial clauses
Purpose Result Manner & Comparison Proportion & Preference

Condition & concession Reason or cause Circumstance

5/2

5
Time

Adverbial clauses
Purpose

Place Result - after, before, until, since, when + finite clause Condition & concession Manner & Comparison - after, before, since, until, when(ever), while + V-ing - once, until, when(ever), while + V-ed Reason or cause Proportion - as soon as, once, when(ever), while + Verbless clause& Preference Circumstance

5/3

5
Time Place

Adverbial clauses
Purpose Result

Condition & concession Manner & Comparison - Introduced by where/ wherever E.g.Reason When retire, I will travel wherever I like. orIcause Proportion & Preference Where the fire had been, we saw nothing but rubble. Circumstance

5/4

5
Time Place

Adverbial clauses
Purpose Result

Condition & concession

Manner & Comparison

Reason or cause Proportion & Preference - Conditional clauses state the dependence of one circumstance on another. Circumstance - Introduced by if, unless, provided that, providing that E.g. If youre kind to her, she will do anything for you.

5/5

5
Time Place

Adverbial clauses
Purpose Result Manner & Comparison

Condition & concession

Reason orclauses cause imply a contrast between Proportion & Preference - Concessive two circumstances. - Introduced by though, although, while, whereas, even if Circumstance E.g. Although he isnt good-looking, people are still attracted to him

5/6

Adverbial clauses

Clauses of condition or concession

Alternative conditional-concessive clauses

Universal conditional-concessive clauses

5/7

Adverbial clauses
Alternative conditional-concessive clauses

Clauses of condition or concession

Combine conditional meaning with subjunctive meaning

E.g. Whether they beat us or we beat them, well celebrate tonight.

5/8

Adverbial clauses
Universal conditional-concessive clauses

Clauses of condition or concession

Indicate a free choice from among any number of conditions

E.g. No matter how hard he tried, he could never summon enough courage to tell her the truth.

5/9

Adverbial clauses

- introduced by because, since, as Time Purpose - I didnt lend him the book because I needed it for my assignment. (adjunct) Result Place - Theyve lit a fire, because I can see smoke rising. (disjunct of reason) Condition & concession Manner & Comparison
Reason or cause Circumstance Proportion & Preference

5/10

Adverbial clauses

Time Purpose - express a fulfilled condition/ a relation between a premise (in the subordinate clause) and the conclusion (in theResult main clause) Place - introduced by because, since, as, & seeing that Condition & concession Manner & enjoy Comparison E.g. Seeing that the weather has improved, we shall our game. = The weather having improved, we shall enjoy our game. Reason or cause Proportion & Preference Circumstance

5/11

5
Time

Adverbial clauses
Purpose

Place Result - are adjuncts introduced (in order) (for N) to, so as to,Manner so that & Comparison Condition &by concession E.g. I tiptoed into the room so as not to wake the baby up. Reason or cause Proportion Preference He tried to improve his English so that he could & study abroad. - has putative meaning (modal auxiliaries are used) Circumstance

5/12

5
Time Place

Adverbial clauses
Purpose Result

Condition & concession Manner & Comparison are more factual than putative may contain an ordinary verb form without a modal auxiliary Reason or cause Proportion & Preference - introduced by so that/so (informal) E.g. We planted many shrubs, so (that) the garden looked beautiful. Circumstance

5/13

5
Time Place

Adverbial clauses
Purpose Result Manner & Comparison

Condition & concession

Reason or cause Proportion & Preference Clauses of manner (exactly) as, (just) as (Just) as a moth is attracted by a light, (so) he was fascinated by her. Circumstance

5/14

5
Time Place

Adverbial clauses
Purpose Result Manner & Comparison

Condition & concession

Reason or cause Clauses of comparison as if, as though Proportion & Preference He looks as if he is going to faint. Circumstance He treated me as though I were a child (unreal)

5/15

Adverbial clauses

Clauses of proportion express a proportionality or Purpose equivalence Time of tendency between two circumstances E.g. Place Result As he grew older, (so) his enthusiasm for the cause decreased. Condition & Comparison The more & he concession went deeper into the forest, the Manner more scared he felt.
Reason or cause Circumstance Proportion & Preference

5/16

Adverbial clauses

Time Purpose Clauses of preference are introduced by rather than/ sooner than E.g. Rather than go there by air, Id take the train. Place than sitting here complaining, we should Result Rather act. Rather than a new shirt, he bought a dictionary. Condition & concession Manner & Comparison Reason or cause Circumstance Proportion & Preference

6/1

Comparative & comment clauses

S: More people eat at KFC than any other fastfood restaurant.
Cs: Im healthier than most people of my age. Od: She eats much more than me. Oi: Santa has brought more children joy than anybody else. A: She works harder than my brother.

Comp-element

6/2

Comparative & comment clauses

Ellipsis in Comparative Clause

1. Optional ellipsis James enjoyed the cake more than Susan enjoyed the cake. James enjoyed the cake more than Susan enjoyed it. James enjoyed the cake more than Susan did. James enjoyed the cake more than Susan. 2. Obligatory ellipsis (of object) - James enjoyed the cake more than Susan enjoyed. + James know more about the theatre than Susan knows.

6/3

Comparative & comment clauses

through ellipsis
He loves the dog more than his wife. with too & enough Hes too ill to move.

Ambiguity

6/4

Comparative & comment clauses

Features Forms

Comment Clauses

6/5

Comparative & comment clauses

Features

Comment Clauses

Forms - can be either disjuncts or conjuncts - may occur initially, finally, or medially - have a separate tone unit

E.g. The Smiths, as you probably know, have been our neighbor for twenty years.

6/6

Comparative & comment clauses

Features Forms

Comment Clauses

(1) Like a main clause At that time, I believe, he didnt understand a thing.

6/7

Comparative & comment clauses

Features Forms (2) Like an adverbial clause (with as) Im a perfectionist, as you may know.

Comment Clauses

6/8

Comparative & comment clauses

Features Forms (3) Like a nominal relative clause as conjunct What is more, we lost all our hope and courage.

Comment Clauses

6/9

Comparative & comment clauses

Features Forms (4) To-infinitive clause as style disjunct To be honest with you, I didnt understand a thing he said.

Comment Clauses

6/10

Comparative & comment clauses

Features Forms (5) ing clause as style disjunct Im concerned, speaking as a linguist, about the language of the young people today.

Comment Clauses

6/11

Comparative & comment clauses

Features Forms (6) ed clause as style disjunct Stated bluntly, he had no chance of winning.

Comment Clauses