Part-C, Chapter-11

Energy from Biomass

Biomass Energy
Biomass refers to living or recently living material plants, animals, fungi, bacteria etc. Biomass is an enormous store of energy. Energy contained in about 1/8 part of all the biomass produced in an year can meet all of worlds annual energy demand. Biomass is carbon, hydrogen and oxygen based. As biomass can be re-grown, it is a renewable source of energy. The energy obtained from biomass is known as biomass energy. Animals feed on plants, and plants grow through the photosynthesis process using solar energy. Therefore, photosynthesis process is primarily responsible for generation of biomass energy. A small potion of the solar radiation is captured and stored in plants during the photosynthesis process. Therefore, it is an indirect form of solar energy. The average efficiency of photosynthesis conversion of solar energy into biomass energy is around 0.5 1.0%.

Biomass Energy
The initial biomass may be transformed by chemical or biological processes to produce bio-fuels such as methane, producer gas, ethanol or charcoal. On combustion, these bio-fuels react with oxygen to generate heat energy which can be further transformed to user needs. For biomass to be sustainable and renewable, growth must keep pace with its use. Biomass technology today serves many segments of industry that were developed with fossil fuels and moderately reduces their use. Present uses of biomass energy - Industrial process heat and steam, electrical power generation, transportation fuels (ethanol and biodiesel) etc. Primary focus now is on development of advanced technologies for efficient use of biomass energy. Biomass does not add CO2 to the atmosphere as it absorbs the same amount of carbon in growing the plants as it releases when consumed as fuel. It is a superior fuel as the energy produced from biomass is carbon cycle neutral.

Biomass resources

Biomass

Energy crops
(arid area plantation aquatic crop)

Natural vegetable growth

Organic wastes and residues

Forest residue

Agricultural crop residues

Animal waste

Urban waste

Industrial waste

Municipal solid waste

Sewage liquid waste

Advantages of biomass energy

It is a renewable source. Energy storage is an in-built feature of biomass energy systems. It is an indigenous source requiring little or no foreign exchange. Forestry and agricultural industries that supply feed stocks also provide development opportunities to rural areas. Atmospheric pollution from combustion of biomass is usually lower than those from fossil fuels. Commercial use of biomass helps improve management of municipal solid wastes in urban areas. Use of biogas plants, apart from supplying clean gas, also leads to better sanitation and living conditions in rural areas as harmful decaying biomass gets stabilized. The nitrogen rich byproducts of biogas plants serves as a very good soil conditioner, improves soil frtility. No seasonality. Biogas plats can be operated at any desired capacity.

Disadvantages of biomass energy

It is a dispersed and land-intensive source. Energy density is very low. It is labour intensive and the cost of collecting large quantities of biomass for commercial application is high. Current commercial applications depend on material that has been collected for other reasons, such as timber and food processing residues and urban waste. Therefore, current level of production and efficiencies are low. Capacity of biomass conversion plants are dependent upon the availability of biomass and not suitable for varying loads. Not feasible to set up biomass conversion systems at all locations.

Photosynthesis process
Solar radiation incident on green plants and other photosynthetic organisms performs two basic functions: Temperature control for chemical reactions to proceed Photosynthesis process The fundamental conversion process in green plants is photosynthesis, which is the process of combining CO2 from the atmosphere with water and light energy to produce oxygen and carbohydrates (sugars, starches, celluloses and hemicelluloses) They are the ultimate source of most of our foods and other necessities of daily life such as cotton clothes, furniture etc. Photosynthesis can be expressed by the reaction: 6CO2 + H2O + light energy
Photosynthesis

C6H12O6 + 6O2

Photosynthesis process
There is a net overall gain of energy in the photosynthesisrespiration process as the rate of energy loss in respiration is much less as compared to the energy gain during photosynthesis process. The process also results in net gain of oxygen and fixation of carbon in the form of biomass. The net energy absorbed from solar radiation during photosynthesis can be measured from its combustion: x CO2 + y H2O + Q
Photosynthesis Combustion

x O2 + Cx (H2O)y

Q is the enthalpy change of the combustion process, equal to the energy absorbed from solar radiation minus the energy of respiration during growth The value of Q is 4.8 eV per carbon atom, or 470 kJ per mole of carbon or 16 MJ/kg of dry carbohydrate material.

Respiration process
The reverse of photosynthesis is called respiration, in which CO2, water and energy are produced using carbohydrates and oxygen. The energy produced in the plants by respiration is used in several processes such as to draw moisture and nutrients through their roots. In green plants, both photosynthesis and respiration occur during the day. During night, only respiration occurs. This cycle of photosynthesis and respiration maintains the balance of carbon dioxide and oxygen on earth.
Photosynthesis Occurs in the presence of light and chlorophyll in plant cells Requires energy (light) to make sugar (glucose) Complex substances (sugar) are formed from simpler ones CO2 and water are the raw materials Oxygen is given out Respiration Occurs at all times in cells Releases energy from sugar Complex substances (sugar) are broken down into simpler ones CO2 and water are the waste products Oxygen is taken in

Photosynthesis and respiration process

Light energy

Photosynthesis

CO2

Sugar

O2

H2O

Respiration
Energy release

Photosynthetic oxygen production

Photosynthetic oxygen evolution is the fundamental process by which breathable oxygen is generated in earth's biosphere. The reaction is part of the light dependent reactions of photosynthesis in cyanobacteria and the chloroplasts of green algae and plants.

It utilizes the energy of light to split a water molecule into its protons and electrons for photosynthesis. Free oxygen is generated as a by-product of this reaction, and is released into the atmosphere.

Energy plantation
Energy plantation means growing select species of trees and shrubs, specifically meant for fuel, which can be harvested in a relatively short period of time . The fuel wood may be used either directly in wood burning stoves and boilers or processed into methanol, ethanol and producer gas. Energy plantations provide almost inexhaustible renewable sources (with total time constant of 3-8 years only for each cycle) of energy which are essentially local and independent of unreliable and finite sources of fuel . The attractive features of energy plantations are: heat content of wood is similar to that of Indian coal wood is low in sulphur and hence less pollution of atmosphere ash from burnt wood can be used as fertiliser utilization of erosion prone land for raising these plantations helps to reduce wind and water erosion. helps in rural employment generation.

Biomass conversion technologies

There are different ways of extracting energy from biomass. These energy-conversion technologies can be grouped into four basic types: a) Physical method b) Incineration or direct combustion c) Thermo-chemical method d) Biochemical method Biogas production from organic wastes by anaerobic fermentation: This is a biochemical process which makes use of the metabolic action of microbial organisms on biomass to produce liquid and gaseous fuels. This process converts decaying wet biomass and animal wastes into biogas through decomposition process by the action of anaerobic bacteria (bacteria that live and grow in absence of oxygen)

Anaerobic fermentation
Carbon present in biomass may be ultimately divided between fully oxidized CO2 and fully reduced CH4.
Decaying wet biomass
20 55C Anaerobic Fermentation

Biogas(largely CH4 and CO2)

The biomass material in the form of water slurry is digested by the bacteria anaerobically for several days in an airtight container. The reactions are slightly exothermic and a small amount of heat is also produced (~ 1.5 MJ/kg of digestible material) that helps in maintaining a favourable temperature for the reaction to proceed. The fraction of methane in the biogas depends on the organic matter and the process of conversion and generally varies between 50% and 80%. The process may be accelerated at somewhat higher temperatures. Most useful biomass for anaerobic fermentation are animal manure, algae, kelp, hyacinth, plant residues and other organic waste materials with high moisture content.

The anaerobic fermentation process

Key byproduct of anaerobic fermentation is methane gas which is produced by the bacteria decomposing the organic waste. Methane is captured and used as biogas. CO2 is also produced. There are 3 stages in anaerobic fermentation and at each stage different bacteria play a role.

The anaerobic fermentation process

Hydrolithic bacteria break the biodegradable macromolecules into more simple substances Acidogenic bacteria use the simple organic matters liberated by the hydrolithic bacteria as substrate and produce organic acids that represent the substrate for the next bacteria Acetogenic bacteria use the products of the acidogenic bacteria as substrate to produce acetate, hydrogen and carbon dioxide Homacetogenic bacteria synthesize the acetate starting from the carbon dioxide and the hydrogen Methanogenic bacteria are divided into two groups: Those that produce methane and carbon dioxide starting from acetic acid, called acetoclastic bacteria Those that produce methane starting from carbon dioxide and hydrogen, called hydrogenotrophic bacteria

The anaerobic fermentation setup

Mixer High pressure valve

Biogas Substrate inflow

Effluent gas Effluent substrate

Fluid zone

Sludge zone

Mixing zone Ground sludge pipe Ground injection pipe

Biogas plants
The biogas plant is a device that converts cattle dung and other organic matter into inflammable gas called biogas and into a good quality organic fertiliser under anaerobic conditions. There are two popular designs of biogas plants: Floating drum (constant pressure) type, and Fixed dome (constant volume) type. Floating drum type biogas plant: This design, developed by Khadi and Village Industries Commission, was standardized in 1961. It comprises of an underground cylindrical masonry digester having an inlet pipe for feeding organic matter slurry and an outlet pipe for sludge. A steel dome, which is provided to collect gas, floats over the slurry. It moves up and down depending upon accumulation and discharge of gas guided by the dome guide shaft.

Floating dome type biogas plant

A partition wall is provided in the digester to improve circulation necessary for fermentation. The floating drum (or gas holder) build gas pressure of about 10 cm of water column which is sufficient to supply gas up to 100m. Gas pressure also forces out the spent slurry through a sludge pipe.
Digester tank

Floating dome type biogas plant construction

The floating dome type of biogas plant has the following chambers/ sections: Mixing pit - present above the ground level. Digester tank - Deep underground well-like structure. It is divided into two chambers by a partition wall in between. Inlet pipe opening into the inlet chamber for introduction of slurry. Outlet pipe opening into the overflow tank for removal of spent slurry. Gas holder - an inverted steel drum resting above the digester. The drum can move up and down i.e., float over the digester. The gas holder has an outlet at the top which could be connected to gas stoves. Outlet pit - Present above the ground level.

Floating dome type biogas plant principle of working

Slurry (mixture of equal quantities of biomass and water) is prepared in the mixing pit. The prepared slurry is fed into the inlet chamber of the digester through the inlet pipe. The plant is left unused for about two months and introduction of more slurry is stopped. During this period, anaerobic fermentation of biomass takes place in the presence of water and produces biogas in the digester. Biogas being lighter rises up and starts collecting in the gas holder. The gas holder now starts moving up.

Floating dome type biogas plant principle of working

The gas holder cannot rise up beyond a certain level. As more and more gas starts collecting, more pressure begins to be exerted on the slurry. The spent slurry is now forced into the outlet pit from top of outlet the inlet chamber. the When the chamber gets filled with the spent slurry, the excess is forced out through the outlet pipe into the overflow tank. This is later used as manure for plants. The gas valve of the gas outlet is opened to get a supply of biogas. Once the production of biogas begins, a continuous supply of gas can be ensured by regular removal of spent slurry and introduction of fresh slurry.

Floating dome type biogas plant

Advantages of floating drum type biogas plants: Floating-drum plants are easy to understand and operate. They provide gas at a constant pressure, and the stored gas-volume is immediately recognizable by the position of the drum. Gas-tightness is easy to maintain, provided the gasholder is derusted and painted regularly.
Disadvantages of floating drum type biogas plants: The steel drum is relatively expensive and maintenance-intensive. Removing rust and painting has to be carried out regularly. The life-time of the drum is short (up to 15 years; in tropical coastal regions about five years). If fibrous substrates are used, the gas-holder shows a tendency to get "stuck" in the resultant floating scum.

Fixed dome type biogas plant

It is an economical design, where the digester is combined with the dome shaped gas holder. The complete unit is made of brick and cement masonry having no moving parts, thus ensuring no wear and tear and longer working life. When gas is produced, the pressure in the dome changes from 0 to 100 cm of water column. It regulates gas distribution and outflow of spent slurry.

Mixing tank

Gas control valve

Digester

Overflow tank

Fixed dome type biogas plant - construction

The fixed dome type biogas plant has the following five sections: Mixing tank present above the ground level. Inlet chamber: The mixing tank opens underground into a sloping inlet chamber. Digester: The inlet chamber opens from below into the digester which is a huge tank with a dome like ceiling. The ceiling of the digester has an outlet with a valve for the supply of biogas. Outlet chamber: The digester opens from below into an outlet chamber. Overflow tank: The outlet chamber opens from the top into a small over flow tank.

Fixed dome type biogas plant principle of working

The various forms of biomass are mixed with an equal quantity of water in the mixing tank. This forms the slurry. The slurry is fed into the digester through the inlet chamber. The temperature of the slurry is maintained around 35 oC. Lower temperature reduces the anaerobic activity and hence the yield of biogas. When the digester is partially filled with the slurry, the introduction of slurry is stopped and the plant is left unused for about two months. During these two months, anaerobic bacteria present in the slurry decompose or ferment the biomass in the presence of water.

Fixed dome type biogas plant principle of working

As a result of anaerobic fermentation, biogas is formed, which starts collecting in the dome of the digester. As more and more biogas starts collecting, the pressure exerted by the biogas forces the spent slurry into the outlet chamber. From the outlet chamber, the spent slurry overflows into the overflow tank. The spent slurry is manually removed from the overflow tank and used as manure for plants. The gas valve connected to a system of pipelines is opened when a supply of biogas is required. To obtain a continuous supply of biogas, a functioning plant can be fed continuously with the prepared slurry.

Fixed dome type biogas plant

Advantages of Fixed Dome Type of Biogas Plant Requires only locally and easily available materials for construction. Inexpensive and easy to construct. Disadvantages of Fixed Dome type biogas plant: The steel drum is relatively expensive and maintenanceintensive. Removing rust and painting has to be carried out regularly. The life-time of the drum is short (up to 15 years; in tropical coastal regions about five years).

Deenbandhu biogas plant (DBP)

Developed by Action For Food Production (AFPRO) as a low cost biogas generator for individual homes and approved by MNRE. It has a fixed underground digester chamber, constructed with a layer of bricks and an additional layer of cement mortar forming the roof above. manure is fed into the plant through the inlet. After fermentation, methane gas is collected at the top of the digester tank, which can be tapped for use. Slurry collected in the outlet tank is used as fertiliser for farming.

Deenbandhu biogas plant (DBP)

Portable, Deenbandhu type biogas plant developed by Sintex Industries.

Biogas plant with cogeneration

Schematic diagram of biogas based co-generation plant developed by Sintex Industries.

Storage & transportation of biogas

Biogas is generally used in combined heat and power applications . The electricity is normally generated by direct use of biogas as it is produced, although the biogas may be stored for later use when applications may require variable power or when production of biogas exceeds consumption. Biogas that has been upgraded to biomethane by removing the H2S, moisture, and CO2 can be used as a vehicular fuel. Since production of such fuel typically exceeds immediate on-site demand, the biomethane must be stored for future use, usually either as compressed biomethane (CBM) or liquefied biomethane (LBM).

Storage & transportation of biogas

Because most farms will produce more biomethane than they can use on-site, the excess biomethane must be transported to a location where it can be used or further distributed. Storage of biogas: There are two basic reasons for storing biogas or biomethane: storage for later on-site usage and storage before and/or after transportation to other distribution points or systems. The need for biogas storage is usually of a temporary nature, at times when production exceeds consumption or during maintenance of digester equipment.

Storage & transportation of biogas

Important considerations for on-farm storage of biogas include: the needed volume (typically, only small amounts of biogas need to be stored at any one time), possible corrosion from H2S or water vapor that may be present, even if the gas has been partially cleaned, and cost (since biogas is a relatively low-value fuel). Low and medium pressure storage of biogas: Floating gas holders on the digester form a lowpressure storage option for biogas systems. These systems typically operate at pressures up to 25 cm water column (less than 2.5 kPa).

Storage & transportation of biogas

Floating gas holders can be made of steel, fiberglass, or a flexible fabric. A separate tank may be used with a floating gas holder for the storage of the raw biogas. The least expensive and most trouble-free gas holder is the flexible inflatable fabric top, as it does not react with the H2S in the biogas and it can be a part of the digester. Flexible membrane materials commonly used for these gas holders include high-density polyethylene (HDPE), low-density polyethylene (LDPE), linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE) etc. typically of 0.5 to 2.5 mm thickness, Biogas can also be stored at medium pressure between 15 kPa and 150 kPa, although this is rarely done.

Storage & transportation of biogas

High-Pressure Storage of Compressed Biomethane: Biomethane can be stored as CBM to save space. Gas cleaning is important at high pressures because impurities such as H2S and water are likely to condense and cause corrosion. The gas is stored in steel cylinders such as those typically used for storage of other commercial gases. Storage facilities must be adequately fitted with safety devices such as rupture disks and pressure relief valves. A typical high-pressure storage system is shown in the following figure.

Storage & transportation of biogas

Biomethane is received in the low pressure storage tank. It is then compressed to high pressure (250-300 bar) by a compressor. High pressure biomethane is then stored in steel containers.

Biomethane

Low pressure storage tank

High Pressure Storage Tanks 250 350 bar

Compressor

Storage & transportation of biogas

Storage of Liquefied Biomethane: Biomethane can also be liquefied, creating a product known as liquefied biomethane (LBM). Two main advantages of LBM are that it can be transported relatively easily and it can be dispensed to either LNG vehicles or CNG vehicles. However, if LBM is to be used off-farm, it must transported by tanker trucks, which normally have a 10,000-litre capacity. For obvious economic reasons, the LBM must be stored on-farm until 10,000 litres have accumulated. Figure shows the process of storing LBM prior to use or transport. Typical LNG storage tanks are double-walled, thermally insulated vessels with requisite storage capacities.

Storage & transportation of biogas

An offload pump is needed to pump the LBM from the low-pressure storage tank to the tanker truck. One of the disadvantages of LNG and thus LBM is that the liquid will heat up during storage, causing loss of LBM to evaporation through a release valve on the tank.

Liquefied Biogas

Pump Low pressure storage tank

Off-load connector

Storage & transportation of biogas

Distribution of Biogas: Biogas is a low-grade, low-value fuel and therefore it is not economically feasible to transport it over long distances. Therefore, biomethane can be distributed to its ultimate point of consumption by one of several options, depending on its point of origin: Distribution via dedicated pipelines Over-the road transport of CBM Over-the-road transport of LBM Distribution via dedicated pipelines: If the point of consumption is relatively close to the point of production (< 1 km), the biomethane can be distributed via dedicated biogas pipelines.

Storage & transportation of biogas

Over the road transportation of CBM: If distribution of biomethane via dedicated pipelines is impractical or prohibitively expensive, over-the-road transportation of compressed biomethane may be considered. The energy density of biomethane is extremely low at ambient conditions. Therefore, it must be compressed to high pressures (20-25 MPa) for transportation to be economical. Compressed natural gas bulk transport vehicles are used when over-the-road transportation of CNG or compressed biomethane is required. Biomethane is classified as inflammble and hazardous material. Therefore, its transportation must follow some specified norms.

Storage & transportation of biogas

Major transportation requirements include the following: Transportation in dept. of explosives approved tanks (e.g., tested and certified steel cylinders) that do not exceed the rated tank pressure. Water vapor content of less than 10 ppm. Minimum methane content of 98% Appropriate hazardous materials markings This method of biomethane distribution is not a cost effective long term solution. It is used as a temporary solution, for example, as a means of expanding the use of biomethane at a new location prior to installation of permanent refueling infrastructure.

Storage & transportation of biogas

Over the road transportation of liquefied biomethane: Over-the-road transportation of liquefied biomethane is a potential way of addressing many of the infrastructure issues associated with biomethane distribution. It is also more economical to transport LBM than CBM because LBM occupies about 600 times less space than biogas at room temperature. LBM can be transported at relatively low pressures (e.g., 135 1000 kPa). However, as the temperature is about -160C, it requires special handling. LBM is grouped with LNG in classification and is considered as inflammable and hazardous liquefied gas.

Storage & transportation of biogas

Over-the-road transportation of liquefied biomethane should therefore adhere to following norms: Transportation in dept. of explosives approved tanks (e.g., double-walled insulated steel tanks). Presence of two independent pressure relief systems. Appropriate hazardous materials markings A significant disadvantage of LBM is that it must be used fairly quickly after it is produced (typically within one week) to avoid significant fuel losses from thermal evaporation.

Problems with biogas production and usage

Problems with usage:
Aspect Problem Availability and ease of transportation of raw materials and processed residual products Remarks Use of algae and hydroponic plants for local production. Easily dried residual products facilitate transportation. Nature of subsoil, water table, availability of solar radiation, prevailing climatic conditions, and strength of village population Use of locally available, cheap raw materials

Site selection

Affordability

Problems with biogas production and usage

Problems with usage: Biogas is a combustible gas and so, must be handled as one handles LPG, petrol, Kerosene etc. However, in rural places, people may not be completely aware of its safety aspects. Generally, small scale biogas plants are designed and built by people other than the users. Unless the plant specifications are carefully chosen, the plant may not be efficiently productive. A biogas leak can be smelled if the hydrogen sulfphide has not been removed from the biogas. Methane and CO2 may cause asphyxiation while repairing or cleaning digesters. No one should go inside large digesters unless they have a companion to help if they need help.

Problems with biogas production and usage

In normal operations the pressure inside the system should always be greater. Negative pressure can occur when the force created by the weight of the gases outside the biogas system is greater than the force inside the system. Negative pressure will pull air into the biogas system and the mixture of biogas and air might explode. If that does not happen, the oxygen in the air will kill the biogas bacteria and the gas production rate will drop. Negative pressure usually becomes a real possibility when more gas from a digester is withdrawn by users than it can produce or there is an unnoticed gas leak. Therefore, a pressure gauge and an alarm must be fitted to know when there is a possibility of occurrence of negative pressure.

Problems with biogas production and usage

When biogas is used at pressures below 2 cm of water, it is very likely that the flame will go out. Even though there is not much gas left in the system, biogas will continue to come out. In such a case, a spark or flame can cause explosion in the room or negative pressure can pull air into the biogas system causing an explosion in the system.