What are the factors influencing perception? What are common perceptual distortions? What is social learning theory?

What is the link between attribution and perception? What is involved in learning by reinforcement?
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Perception
The process by which

people select,

organize, interpret,
retrieve, and respond to information from

the world around

them.
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Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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What do you see?

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Influence Factors

Stages of Perception

(Feeling, thinking, acting)

Response

Attention Attention Attentionand and and

Selection Selection Selection

Organization Organization

Interpretation Interpretation

Retrieval

Schemas/Scripts

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Attention and selection

Selective screening
Lets in only a tiny portion all the information that is available

Two types of selective screening

Controlled processing

Screening without perceivers conscious

awareness
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Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Schemas
Cognitive frameworks that represent

organized knowledge about a given concept or stimulus developed through experience.

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Self schema
Contains information about a persons own

appearance, behavior, and personality.

Person schema
Refers to the way individuals sort others into

categories in terms of similar perceived

features.
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Script schema
a knowledge framework

that describes the appropriate sequence

of events in a given
situation.

Person-in-situation schema
combines schemas built

around persons and events.

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You have just been told that your job has been down-sized. This has never happened to you before. Now what?
1) Take cues from your environment. 2) Pay attention to salient cues.

3) Create a new mental category (laid off).

4) Consider how others have responded.
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Interpretation
Uncovering

the reasons

behind the
ways stimuli are grouped.

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Retrieval
Attention and selection, organization, and

interpretation are part of memory.

Information stored in memory must be

retrieved in order to be used.

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Impression Management Systematic attempt to influence how others perceive us.

Cultivating positive impressions can help to

advance a job or career.

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Stereotypes
Assigns attributes to an individual that are

commonly associated with a group.

Individual differences are obscured. Strong impact at the organization stage.

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Halo effects
Occur when one attribute of a person or

situation is used to develop an overall impression of the individual or situation.

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Selective perception
The tendency to single out for attention

those aspects of a situation, person, or object that are consistent with ones needs, values, or attitudes.

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Projection
The assignment of ones personal attributes

to other individuals.

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Contrast effects
Occur when an individuals characteristics

are contrasted with those of others recently encountered, who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics.

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Self-fulfilling prophecy
The tendency to

create or find in

another situation or
individual that which one expected to find.

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SELF FULFILLING PROPHESY

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Think about the self-fulfilling prophecy. Which of

the following would not be a good idea?

a. Instill confidence in your staff. b. Identify errors in employees performance and

refer to them often.

c. Treat all new employees as if they are star

performers.
d. Set high performance goals.

Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Attribution
Process of creating explanations for events.

Can be classified as internal or external:

Internal factors Personal characteristics that cause behavior (e.g., , lack of knowledge, ability, effort, motivation, attitude) External factors Environmental characteristics that cause behavior (e.g., task difficulty, good/bad luck, not enough training, situational factors like technical malfunctions, weather, health)

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Distinctiveness
Consistency of a persons behavior across

situations.

Consensus
Likelihood of others responding in a similar way.

Consistency
Whether an individual responds the same way

across time.
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Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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 External Attribution * High consensus * High distinctiveness * Low consistency Internal Attribution * Low consensus * Low distinctiveness * High consistency

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Fundamental attribution error

Your poor performance is caused by you! In general, we tend to blame the person first, not the situation.

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Self-serving bias
Tendency to take more personal

responsibility for success than failure.

I got an A because I studied. I got a D because the exam was too hard.

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Do not overlook the external causes of others behaviors. (Identify and confront your stereotypes, your biases, your preconceived notions.)

Evaluate people based on objective factors.

Do not rush to judgment http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b5ZljnMmrIs

(5.13 sec)

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Cultural differences in attributions :

Individualistic cultures - managers more likely to

attribute employee poor performance to internal causes.

Negative attributes blame team-mates for subordinates for performance problems.

Collectivist cultures overemphasize self-serving

bias; managers blame themselves for groups failure.

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Social learning theory

Describes how learning occurs through

interactions among people, behavior, and environment.

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Self efficacy
The persons belief that he or she can

perform adequately in a situation (selfconfidence, competence, ability).

Key factor in self-control.

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Reinforcement
The administration of a consequence as a

result of a behavior.
Appropriate use of reinforcement used can

alter the direction, level and persistence of a

behavior.

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Classical conditioning
A form of learning through association that

involves the manipulation of stimuli to

influence behavior.

Stimulus
Something that elicits some kind of a

response.
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Operant conditioning
The process of controlling behavior by

manipulating, or operating on, its consequences.

Considered learning by reinforcement.

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Law of effect
Behavior that results in a pleasant outcome is

likely to be repeated while behavior that results in an unpleasant outcome is not likely to be repeated.

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You work really hard at your job, and are not rewarded. The law of

effect would suggest that you will

a. Quit b. Keep trying to impress the right people

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Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Organizational behavior modification (OB Mod)

The systematic reinforcement of desirable

work behavior and the non-reinforcement or punishment of unwanted work behavior.

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Positive reinforcement
Increases the frequency of a behavior

through the contingent presentation of a desirable consequence.

Law of contingent reinforcement - only the correctly exhibited behavior is rewarded. Law of immediate reinforcement reward must be provided as soon as possible after the behavior.

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Shaping
Creation of a new behavior by the positive

reinforcement of successive approximations to the desired behavior.

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Continuous reinforcement
Administering a reward each time the

desired behavior occurs.

Intermittent reinforcement
Rewards behavior periodically either on

the basis of time elapsed or the number of

desired behaviors exhibited.
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Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Negative reinforcement
The withdrawal of negative consequences

to increase the likelihood of repeating the desired behavior in a similar setting.

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Punishment
The administration of negative

consequences, or the withdrawal of positive consequences, to reduce the likelihood of repeating the behavior in similar settings.

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Extinction
The withdrawal of the reinforcing

consequences for a given behavior.

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Team Leader Antecedent

Do good work Do good work Do good work Do good work Do good work

Team Member Response

High work quality Low work quality High work quality High error rate Low work quality

Team Leader Behavior

Praise and rewards Criticism and reprimand No criticism; no reprimand Takes away break time No praise; no rewards

Type of Reinforcement Strategy

Positive Reinforcement Punishment Negative Reinforcement Punishment Extinction

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Behavior modification techniques, when utilized positively in organizations, can be very powerful and effective in encouraging desired performance.
Because of their potential power, they may

lend themselves to inappropriate or even

unethical uses.
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