Chapter 1

Foundry Processes

Casting
One of the oldest manufacturing processes 4000 B.C. with stone and metal molds for casting copper Pour molten metal into a mold cavity to produce solidified parts that take on the shape of the cavity Many different casting processes, each with its own characteristics, applications and materials, advantages, limitations, and costs

Casting
Casting can produce complex shapes with internal cavities or hollow sections Casting can produce very large parts Competitive with other processes Good net-shape manufacturing for metals

Casting Considerations
Flow of molten metal into the mold cavity
Mold design Fluid flow characteristics

Solidification and cooling of the metal in the mold

Metallurgical and thermal properties of the molten metal and mold material Geometric relationship between volume and surface area of the casting Mold shape

Influence and type of mold material

Rate of cooling of the molten metal Factors that affect defect formation Surface finish

Cast Structures of Metals

Figure 10.1 Schematic illustration of three cast structures of metals solidified in a square mold: (a) pure metals; (b) solid-solution alloys; and (c) structure obtained by using nucleating agents. Source: G. W. Form, J. F. Wallace, J. L. Walker, and A. Cibula.

Types of Casting
Expandable mold casting

Permanent mold casting

Cont.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Sand casting Shell mould casting Investment casting Centrifugal casting Die casting

CASTING CHARACTERISTICS
A mould cavity must have the designed shape and size, and include allowances for shrinkage. The mould material must be capable of producing the shape and not react with the molten metal.

Moulds can be produced for one-off castings, but economics make it desirable to reuse moulds in some way, if possible. Permanent moulds can be made of graphite or metals but are expensive.

CASTING CHARACTERISTICS
A suitable method of melting the alloy must be available; this includes adequate temperature, satisfactory quality and quantity at low cost. When the molten metal is poured, all gases must be able to escape allowing the cavity to be filled and keeping the casting dense and defect free; this is the reason for risers.

Casting Defects
Figure 10.12 Examples of common defects in castings. These defects can be minimized or eliminated by proper design and preparation of molds and control of pouring procedures. Source: J. Datsko.

TABLE 11.1 Process

Sand

Advantages
Almost any metal cast; no limit to size, shape or weight; low tooling cost. Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish; high production rate. Most metals cast with no limit to size; complex shapes Intricate shapes; good dimensional accu- racy and finish; low porosity.

Limitations
Some finishing required; somewhat coarse finish; wide tolerances. Part size limited; expensive patterns and equipment required. Patterns have low strength and can be costly for low quantities Limited to nonferrous metals; limited size and volume of production; mold making time relatively long. Limited size.

Shell mold

Expendable pattern

Plaster mold

Summary of Casting Processes

Ceramic mold

Intricate shapes; close tolerance parts; good surface finish. Intricate shapes; excellent surface finish and accuracy; almost any metal cast. Good surface finish and dimensional accuracy; low porosity; high production rate. Excellent dimensional accuracy and surface finish; high production rate.

Investment

Part size limited; expensive patterns, molds, and labor.

Permanent mold

High mold cost; limited shape and intricacy; not suitable for high-melting-point metals. Die cost is high; part size limited; usually limited to nonferrous metals; long lead time. Equipment is expensive; part shape limited.

Die

Centrifugal

Large cylindrical parts with good quality; high production rate.

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General Characteristics of Casting Processes

TABLE 11.2 Typical materials cast
All All

Weig ht (kg) Minimum

0.05 0.05

Process
Sand Shell Expendable mold pattern

Maximum
No limit 100+

Typical surface finish (mm, Ra)

5-25 1-3

Section thic kness (mm) Shape Dimensional Porosity* complexity* accuracy* Minimum
4 4 1-2 2-3 3 2 3 2

Maximum
No limit --

All Nonferrous Plaster (Al, Mg, Zn, mold Cu) All (High melting Investment pt.) Permanent mold All Nonferrous (Al, Mg, Zn, Die Cu) Centrifugal All

0.05

No limit

5-20

No limit

0.05

50+

1-2

1-2

--

0.005 0.5

100+ 300

1-3 2-3

3 2-3

1 3-4

1 1

1 2

75 50

<0.05 --

50 5000+

1-2 2-10

1-2 1-2

3-4 3-4

1 3

0.5 2

12 100

*Relative rating: 1 best, 5 worst. Note : These ratings are only general; significant variations can occur, depending on the methods used.

Sand Casting

Sand Casting - Products

Characteristics of Products
Large size High Strength Low surface finish

Sand Mold Features

Figure 11.4 Schematic illustration of a sand mold, showing various features.

Steps in Sand Casting

Figure 11.5 Outline of production steps in a typical sand-casting operation.

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Pattern Material Characteristics

TABLE 11.3 Characteristic Wood Aluminum Rating Steel
a

Plastic

Cast iron

Machinability E G F G G Wear resistance P G E F E Strength F G E G G Weightb E G P G P Repairability E P G F G Resistance to: Corrosionc E E P E P Swellingc P E E E E aE, Excellent; G, good; F, fair; P, poor. bAs a factor in operator fatigue. cBy water. Source : D.C. Ekey and W.R. Winter, Introduction to Foundry Technology. New York. McGraw-Hill, 1958.

Patterns for Sand Casting

Figure 11.6 A typical metal match-plate pattern used in sand casting.

Figure 11.7 Taper on patterns for ease of removal from the sand mold.

Sequence of Operations for Sand Casting

Figure 11.11 Schematic illustration of the sequence of operations for sand casting. Source: Steel Founders' Society of America. (a) A mechanical drawing of the part is used to generate a design for the pattern. Considerations such as part shrinkage and draft must be built into the drawing. (b-c) Patterns have been mounted on plates equipped with pins for alignment. Note the presence of core prints designed to hold the core in place. (d-e) Core boxes produce core halves, which are pasted together. The cores will be used to produce the hollow area of the part shown in (a). (f) The cope half of the mold is assembled by securing the cope pattern plate to the flask with aligning pins, and attaching inserts to form the sprue and risers. (continued)

Sequence of Operations for Sand Casting (cont.)

Figure 11.11 (g) The flask is rammed with sand and the plate and inserts are removed. (g) The drag half is produced in a similar manner, with the pattern inserted. A bottom board is placed below the drag and aligned with pins. (i) The pattern, flask, and bottom board are inverted, and the pattern is withdrawn, leaving the appropriate imprint. (j) The core is set in place within the drag cavity. (k) The mold is closed by placing the cope on top of the drag and buoyant forces in the liquid, which might lift the cope. (l) After the metal solidifies, the casting is removed from the mold. (m) The sprue and risers are cut off and recycled and the casting is cleaned, inspected, and heat treated (when necessary).

Surface Roughness for Various Metalworking Processes

Figure 11.12 Surface roughness in casting and other metalworking processes. See also Figs. 22.14 and 26.4 for comparison with other manufacturing processes.