Pressure measurement

Pressure measurement is a very common requirement for most industrial process control system and many different types of pressure-sensing and pressure measurement systems are available. The absolute pressure of a fluid defines the difference between the pressure of the fluid and the absolute zero of the pressure.
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Measurement of mid-range pressures(1.013-7000 bar)

U-tube Manometer Pressure is defined as a force per unit area and the most accurate way to measure low air pressure is to balance a column of liquid of known weight against it and measure the height of the liquid column so balanced. The units of measure commonly used are inches of mercury (in. Hg), using mercury as the fluid and inches of water (in. w.c.), using water or oil as the fluid.
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Explanation

Fig. 2-1. In its simplest form the manometer is a U-tube about half filled with liquid. With both ends of the tube open, the liquid is at the same height in each leg. Fig. 2-2. When positive pressure is applied to one leg, the liquid is forced down in that leg and up in the other. The difference in height, "h," which is the sum of the readings above and below zero, indicates the pressure. Fig. 2-3. When a vacuum is applied to one leg, the liquid rises in that leg and falls in the other. The difference in height, "h," which is the sum of the readings above and below zero, indicates the amount of vacuum. Lecturer Touseef Yaqoob
Electronic Instrumentation

VARIATIONS IN MANOMETER DESIGN

To overcome the U-tube requirement of readings at two different places, the well-type manometer was developed. The reservoir (well) may be made large enough so that the change of level in the reservoir is negligible, or the scale may be compensated for the change in reservoir liquid level. For purposes of a more practical instrument the well-type manometer uses a precision bored well that requires approximately a 10% scale correction for well drop effect, thus avoiding an overly large and bulky reservoir.
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Continued
To improve and expand readability, certain Utype and well-type manometers are available with a. Red oil indicating fluid, and scales compensated to read pressure directly in inches of water. To further increase readability and sensitivity the well-type manometer indicating tube is inclined, to cause a greater linear movement along the tube for a given pressure difference. For an inclined manometer to be a primary device, the inclined tube must be straight and uniform.
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Well-type manometer

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Explanation
At left, equal pressure is imposed on the fluid in the well and in the indicating tube. Reading is zero. At the right, a positive pressure has been imposed on the liquid in the well causing the level to go down very slightly. Liquid level in indicating tube has risen substantially. Reading is taken directly from scale at liquid level in indicating tube. The scale has been compensated for the drop in level in the well.
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Inclined manometer

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Explanation
At left, equal pressure is imposed on the liquid in the well and the indicating tube. Reading is zero. At the right a positive pressure has been imposed on the liquid in the indicating tube pushing it down to a point on the scale equal to the pressure. Liquid level in the well rises proportionately. Inclining the indicating tube has opened up the scale to permit more precise reading of the pressure.
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FACTORS AFFECTING MANOMETER

PERFORMANCE AND USAGE

CHARACTERISTICS OF INDICATING FLUID The fluid must also have good "wetting" characteristics and be capable of forming a consistent, well shaped meniscus in the indicating tube to facilitate accurate, repeatable readings. The fluid used also affects the operating range of the manometer. Mercury being 13.6 times the weight of water will move 1/13.6th the distance water will move in response to a given pressure.
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READABILITY

use of fluids that give a uniform, well defined meniscus facilitate accurate reading. Scales must be clear, sharp, accurate and easy to read. For accuracy, it is essential that the readings be made with the line of sight perpendicular to the fluid column to eliminate parallax error. Parallax free reading is made by aligning meniscus with its reflection in the polished scale. Smoothly machined bores further enhance the visibility of the meniscus.
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LEVELING

Accurate readings with inclined and inclinedvertical manometers require that the inclined portion of the scale be at the exact angle for which it is designed. solid plastic inclined and inclined-vertical manometers are equipped with the integral, sensitive spirit levels to facilitate this requirement; most also have screw type leveling adjustment.
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FACTORS IN DESIGN AND MANUFACTURE THAT

AFFECT INCLINED MANOMETER ACCURACY
1. "Well Drop" (ratio of the area of the reservoir

to the area of the indicating tube).

As the fluid rises or falls in the indicating tube the level in the reservoir will fall or rise correspondingly and the scale must be compensated accordingly. Inaccuracies in the diameter of the reservoir or the indicating tube will create errors in this compensation.
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Continued

In glass tube instruments this error can only be minimized by a large ratio of reservoir to indicating tube area, by the use of precision bore tubing. the use of machining techniques accurate to .0002" for wells and indicating bores reduces this error to insignificance.
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2. Indicating Bore Straightness

Magnitude of error from this cause is, therefore, a function of the quality of this particular piece of precision bore tubing and the manner of tube mounting. Variations in accuracy from gage to gage and in a given gage over a period of time can be anticipated as the tube is bumped or bent in use.
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The Pressure Sensor

Because of the great variety of conditions, ranges, and materials for which pressure must be measured, there are many different types of pressure sensor designs. Often pressure can be converted to some intermediate form, such as displacement. The sensor then converts this displacement into an electrical output such as voltage or current. The three most universal types of pressure transducers of this form are the strain gage, variable capacitance, and piezoelectric.
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Strain gage

Of all the pressure sensors, Wheatstone bridge (strain based) sensors are the most common, offering solutions that meet varying accuracy, size, and cost constraints. Bridge sensors are used for high and low pressure applications, and can measure absolute or differential pressure.

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Strain gage

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When a change in pressure causes the diaphragm to deflect, a corresponding change in resistance is induced on the strain gauge, which can be measured by a Data Acquisition (DAQ) System.

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variable capacitance type pressure sensor

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The capacitance between two metals plates changes if the distance between these two plates changes. A variable capacitance pressure transducer, measures the change in capacitance between a metal diaphragm and a fixed metal plate. These pressure transducers are generally very stable and linear, but are sensitive to high temperatures and are more complicated to setup than most pressure sensors
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Piezoelectric pressure transducer

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Piezoelectric pressure transducer, take advantage of the electrical properties of naturally occurring crystals such as quartz. These crystals generate an electrical charge when they are strained. Piezoelectric pressure sensors do not require an external excitation source and are very rugged. The sensors however, do require charge amplification circuitry and very susceptible to shock and vibration.
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Pressure Sensors (pressure < one atmosphere)

Thermocouple Gauges Pirani Gauges Ionization Gauges

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Thermocouple Gauges

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To determine a chamber's pressure range between 10 and 10-3 Torr a gauge measures the voltage of a thermocouple spot-welded to a filament exposed to system gas. A constant current supply feeds the filament, and the filament reaches a temperature dependant on thermal losses to the gas. At higher pressure, more molecules hit the filament and remove more heat energy, changing the thermocouple voltage, Changing the thermocouple voltage.
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Pirani Gauges

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In a Pirani gauge two filaments (platinum alloy in the best gauges), act as resistances in two arms of a Wheatstone bridge. The reference filament is immersed in a fixed-gas pressure, while the measurement filament is exposed to the system gas. A current through the bridge heats both filaments. Gas molecules hit the heated filaments and conduct away some of the heat.
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Continued

If the gas pressure (or composition) around the measurement filament is not identical to that around the reference filament, the bridge is unbalanced and the degree of unbalance is a measure of the pressure. In reality, modern Pirani gauges electronically adjust the unbalance and use the current needed to bring about balance as a measure of the pressure. This improves the linearity of measurement.
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Continued

Any particular Pirani gauge has roughly the same dynamic range as a thermocouple gauge but the measurement principle allows these gauges to cover a greater total range (from 20 Torr to 10-5 Torr) than is available from the thermocouple principle. Pirani gauges and their circuitry are typically ten times faster than thermocouple gauges

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Ionization Gauges

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Ion gauges allow measurement of pressure in vacuum chambers. There are two types of tubulated hot filament ion gauge Bayard-Alpert (B-A) Schulz-Phelps (S-P) They differ only in the physical size and spacing of their electrodes. Both have heated filaments biased to give thermionic electrons of 70e -- energetic enough to ionize any residual gas molecules during collisions.
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Continued

The positive ions formed drift to an ion collector held at about 150V. The current measures gas number density, a direct measure of pressure. With a suitable controller, the commonly available B-A ion gauges will measure pressures between 1 x 10-4 to 1 x 10-9 Torr. The electrode spacing of an S-P gauge can increase the upper pressure measurement limit to 1 Torr
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Pressure Sensors (pressure > one atmosphere)

In general, the design of pressure sensors employed for measurement of pressure higher than one atmosphere differs from those employed for pressure less than one atmosphere. Most pressure sensors used this pressure range require the transduction of pressure information into a physical displacement. Measurement of pressure requires techniques for producing the displacement and means for converting such displacement into a proportional electrical signal
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Diaphragms, Bellows, and Bourdon Tubes

One common element used to convert pressure information into a physical displacement is the diaphragm. A diaphragm is like a spring, and therefore extends or contracts until a Hooke's law force is developed that balances the pressure difference force. A bellows is another device much like the diaphragm that converts a pressure differential into a physical displacement, except that here the displacement is much more a straight-line expansion.
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Continued

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Continued

Figure also shows how an LVDT can be connected to the bellows so that the pressure measurement is converted directly from displacement to voltage. In addition, the displacement and pressure are nearly linearly related, and because the LVDT voltage is linear with displacement, the voltage and pressure are also linearly related.
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A common pressure-to-displacement conversion is accomplished by a specially constructed tube (See Figure). If a section of tubing is partially flattened and coiled as shown, then the application of pressure inside the tube causes the tube to uncoil. This then provides a displacement that is proportional to pressure
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Continued

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Techniques used

Many techniques are used to convert the displacements generated in the previous examples into electronic signals. The simplest technique is to use a mechanical linkage connected to a potentiometer. In this fashion, pressure is related to a resistance change. Other methods of conversion employ strain gauges directly on a diaphragm. LVDTs and other inductive devices are used to convert bellows or Bourdon tube motions into proportional electrical signals
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Solid-State Pressure Sensors

Integrated circuit manufacturers have developed composite pressure sensors that are particularly easy to use. These devices commonly employ a semiconductor diaphragm onto which a semiconductor strain gauge and temperaturecompensation sensor have been grown. Appropriate signal conditioning is included in integrated circuit form, providing a dc voltage or current linearly proportional to pressure over a specified range.

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Continued

These devices are available for absolute, gauge, and differential-pressure measurement. They are simple to use, often needing only three connections: a dc supply, ground, and signal output. The connection to the measurement environment is made through a fitting or welded-pipe connection. The above sensors often require very specific signal conditioning, and in many cases the sensors must be purchased with a sensorspecific controller.
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Example

A differential pressure (DP) cell measures pressure difference with a diaphragm. A feedback system minimizes actual diaphragm motion
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Fiber optic Pressure Sensors

Fiber optic pressure sensors, known as microbend sensors. The refractive index of fiber optic cable and hence intensity of light transmitted varies according to the mechanical deformation of the fibers caused by pressure. The sensitivity of pressure sensors can be optimized by applying a pressure via roller chain such that bending is applied periodically. Microbend sensors are used to measure the small pressure changes
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Pressure Switches

Pressure switches close or open electrical contacts when the pressure to be monitored reaches a predetermined level. The representative construction of the switch incorporates a pressure-sensitive elastic element, a counterbalancing spring working against the element, and a lever linkage carrying the contacts. When the pressure reaches the setup point, the levers, carrying the contacts, trigger. Pressure switch. P = pressure, 1 = pressuresensitive element, 2 = counterbalancing spring, 3 = lever linkage, 4 = contacts
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High Pressure measurement (> 7000 bar)

Measurement of pressure above 7000 bar is normally carried out electrically by monitoring the change of resistance of wires of special materials. Materials having resistance-pressure characteristics which are suitably linear and sensitive include gold-chromium alloys and manganin.
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A coil of such wire is enclosed in a sealed, kerosene-filled, flexible bellows. The unknown pressure is applied to one end of the bellows, which transmit the pressure to the coil, the magnitude of the pressure is then determined by measuring the coil resistance.

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Intelligent pressure transducers

Adding microprocessor power to pressure transducers brings substantial improvements in their characteristics. Some features of intelligent pressure transducers include, improved measurement sensitivity, extended measurement range, compensation for hysteresis and other nonlinearities, and correction of ambient pressure and temperature changes.
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