Rays

Snells Law
Structure of the Earth

Seismic Waves
Near-Field Terms (Static Displacements)
Far-Field Terms (P, S, Surface waves)

Normal modes
Free oscillations of the Earth



II.1 Theoretical Seismology 2: Wave Propagation

Magnitude for Local Tsunami
(Example)
JMA Magnitude (Tsuboi, 1954)
M=log 10A + 1.73 log10 0.83
A : Half of maximum total amplitude [m]
: Epicentral distance [km]
Seismic waves

Faulting

Travel Time and Distance
Hypocentral distance
(distance between hypocenter and station)
L
a
p
s
e

t
i
m
e

f
r
o
m

t
h
e

o
r
i
g
i
n
(
t
r
a
v
e
l

t
i
m
e
)
Station A
Station B
Station C
S wave
P wave
S-P time
Homogeneous Earth
o
1
o

o
1
< o
2
u
1
u
2
Ray Paths in a Layered Medium
o
1
o

o
1
> o
2
u
1
u
2
lower
Faster
Faster
Slower
Andrija Mohorovicic (1857-1936)

Found seismic discontinuity at
30 km depth in the Kupa Valley
(Croatia).





Mohorovicic discontinuity or Moho

Boundary between crust and mantle

Moho
o
1
o
2
o
3
Ray Paths in a Layered Medium
1/o
1
1/o
2
1/o
3
Distance
Time
Structure in the Earth

Crust-Mantle
Core-Mantle

440 km
660 km

Forward Branch
Backward Branch
Forward Branch
Backward Branch
Forward Branch
Shadow Zone
Forward
Branch
Backward Branch
Forward Branch
Shadow
Zone
PcP

1912 Gutenberg observed shadow zone 105
o
to 143
o

1939 Jeffreys fixed depth of core at 2898 km
(using PcP)

Forward
Branch
Backward
Branch
Forward
Branch
P
PcP
PKP
Shadow
Zone
PcP
Core Reflections
Why are observed seismograms so
complicated ?

Structure: Free Surface

Earth is a not homogenous whole-space


Free surface causes many complications

- surface waves
- reflections (pP, sP, sS)
depth phase

Surface Wave and Maximum Amplitude
Observed in
Japan.
=57(deg)

Max Amp.,
40 min after
occurrence.
(Ms, 20 deg 160 deg)
Seismogram of a distant earthquake
( LR: Rayleigh wave, LQ: Love wave )
Fig.16
January 26, 2001 Gujarat, India Earthquake (Mw7.7)
Recorded in Japan at a distance of 57
o
(6300 km)
Love Waves
vertical
radial
transverse
Rayleigh Waves
Aspects of Waves not Explained by Ray Theory

Different types of waves (P, S)
Surface Waves
Static Displacements
Frequency content


Seismic Waves
Body waves
PS
0.01 to 50 sec 50 m to 500 km
Surface waves

10 to 350 sec 30 to 1000 km
Free Oscillations

350 to 3600 sec
(6 min to 1 hour)
1000 to 10000 km
Static
Displacements

-

Period

Wavelength

Static Displacements
Bei-Fung Bridge near Fung-Yan city, 1999 Chi-Chi, Taiwan earthquake
Static displacements
Co-seismic deformation
of 2003 Tokachi-oki
Earthquake (M8.0)
Houseman http://earth.leeds.ac.uk/~greg/?Sphar/index.html
Free Oscillations l=1 m=1
Summary
Rays
Earth structure causes complicated ray paths
through the Earth (P, PKP, PcP)

Wave theory explains
P and S waves
Static displacements
Surface waves

Normal Modes
The Earth rings like a bell at long periods

Thank you for your attention
Snells Law
Fermats Principle
u
1
u
2

sin u
1
/ sin u
2
= n
21
Air
Water
Rays
Wave Equation

2
1
2
2
1
1
2
1
t
u
c x
u
c
c
=
c
c
1-D wave equation


c = propagation speed

Slinky: constant velocity
wave propagation, no mass transfer, different from circulation eq.
1-D Wave Equation
2
1
2
2
1
1
2
1
t
u
c x
u
c
c
=
c
c
LW 3.2.1
e
t 2
= T
T = wave period
e = angular frequency
)] / ( sin[ ) , ( c x t A t x u = e
Solution
Wave Period and Wavelength
wavelength 300 km
Velocity 6 km/s
Velocity = Wavelength / Period
x
t
wavelength


period

Space
Time
period 50 s
frequency = 1/period= 0.02 hz
) ( ) ( ) 2 (
2
2
u u f
t
u
V V V V + + =
c
c

3-D Wave Equation with Source

source

spatial 2nd derivative

Solution
t t t
t
|
o
d t M
r
A t x u
r
r
N
) (
1
4
1
) , (
/
/
0
4
=
}
) (
1
4
1
) (
1
4
1
0
2 2
0
2 2
| t| o to
r
t M
r
A
r
t M
r
A
IS IP
+ +
) (
1
4
1
) (
1
4
1
0
3
0
3
| t| o to
r
t M
r
A
r
t M
r
A
FS FP
+ +

Near-field Terms (Static Displacements)
Far-field Terms (P, S Waves)
Near-field terms
Static displacements

Only significant close to the fault

Source of tsunamis

r/o r/|
t

r/o r/|
Far-field Terms
Propagating Waves

No net displacement


P waves



S waves



) (
1
4
1
) (
1
4
1
0
3
0
3
| t| o to
r
t M
r
A
r
t M
r
A
FS FP
+ +

Surface Waves
S
Shearer, Fig. 8.1
Period (sec)
Love
Rayleigh
G
r
o
u
p

V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

(
k
m
/
s
e
c
)

Generation of Tsunami from Near-field Term
Normal Modes
(Daishinji, Fukui Prefecture)
Free Oscillations of the Earth
1960 Chile Earthquake

Useful for studies of
Interior of the Earth
Largest earthquakes
(Stein and Gellar 1978)
Houseman http://earth.leeds.ac.uk/~greg/?Sphar/index.html
Free Oscillations l=1 m=2
Houseman http://earth.leeds.ac.uk/~greg/?Sphar/index.html
Free Oscillations l=1 m=3
Toroidal and Spheroidal Modes
Toroidal
Spheroidal
Dahlen and Tromp Fig. 8.5, 8.17
Natural Vibrations of the Earth
Shearer Ch.8.6
Lay and Wallace, Ch. 4.6