3.

Analysis of LTI-Systems
3.1 Initial Response
3.2 Frequency Response
3.3 Transfer Function
3.4 Singularity Functions
3.5 Impulse Response
3.6 Step Response
3.7 Response to an Arbituary Input
Initial Response
= response due to initial conditions
if no input is applied

First-Order System 1 initial condition
e.g.: car model:

v(t = 0s) = v
o
Second-Order System 2 initial conditions
e.g.: Pohls wheel
(t = 0s) =
o

e(t = 0s) = d/dt(t = 0s) = 0
Initial Response of a 1st Order System
u b
dt
du
b y a
dt
dy
a
0 1 0 1
+ = +
= 0 no input
Initial response


solution of the complimentary part of the differential equation
0
0 1
= + y a
dt
dy
a
Initial Response of a 1st Order System
u b
dt
du
b y a
dt
dy
a
0 1 0 1
+ = +
( ) ) ( exp ) ( t y s
dt
dy
t s A t y = =
) exp( ) (
1
0
0
t
a
a
y t y =
( ) ( ) 0
0 1
= + t y a t sy a
Using the approach:



A y s t y = = =
0
) 0 ( Initial condition:
Initial Response
= 0 no input
0
0 1
= + a s a
1
0
a
a
s =

characteristic equation
Eigenvalue
Internal Stability of a 1st Order System
0 1
0 1
) (
a s a
b s b
s G
+
+
=
1
0
1
a
a
s p = =
) exp( ) (
1
0
0
t
a
a
y t y =
this transfer function has 1 pole:
0 0
1 0
> > a and a


0
0 1
= + a s a
initial response:

transfer function:
0 ) 0 ( = t y
0 0
1 0
> > a and a
0
1
< p
characteristic equation
Stability of LTI-Systems
,
Re(s)
Im(s)
pole locations in the s-plane
stable grenzstabil unstable
Stability of LTI-System: Time Functions
,
Time functions associated with pole location in the s-plane
Internal Stability of a System


A dynamic system is stable
if the step response of the system
will have a finite terminal value for t .




Stable system real parts of all poles are negative.
Internal Stability of a System
(Internal) Stability: intrinsic property of a LTI-system;
independent of the input.


A dynamic system is stable
if the initial response of the system
to any initial condition will be zero for t .




Stable system real parts of all poles are negative.
Initial Response of a 2nd Order System
0
0 1
2
2
2
= + + y a
dt
dy
a
dt
y d
a
( ) ) ( exp ) ( t y s
dt
dy
t s A t y = =
( ) ( ) ( ) 0
0 1
2
2
= + + t y a t y s a t y s a
Using the approach:



no input
2
2
2
1
2
1
2 / 1
2 2 a
a
a
a
a
a
s
o

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
characteristic equation
Eigenvalues
) (
2
2
2
t y s
dt
y d
=
0
2
0
2
1
2
= + +
a
a
s
a
a
s
Analogy
ext
F y k
dt
dy
b
dt
y d
m = + +
2
2
Motor Rot Rot
T k
dt
d
b
dt
d
J = + +

2
2
Pohls Wheel
Car Suspension System
Exp.: Pohls Wheel


ext
T u = system input:
system output:
J
b b b
1
, 0 , 0
0 1 2
= = =
system parameters:
o
a a a e o = = =
0 1 2
, 2 , 1
ext
T D
dt
d
k
dt
d
J = + +

* *
2
2
= y
ext
T
J J
D
dt
d
J
k
dt
d
= + +
1 * *
2
2

ext o
T
J dt
d
dt
d
= + +
1
2
2
2
2
e

Initial Response of Pohls Wheel

Hier 3 Kurven aus Experiment
einfgen
underdamping
overdamping
critical damping
Homework: PT2-element
Calculate the initial response of the car suspension system
for the initial conditions:

y(t = 0 s) = y
o
dy/dt (t = 0s) = 0

a) case1: underdamping o < e
o


b) case 2: critical damping o = e
o

c) case 3: overdamping o > e
o
) exp( ) exp( ) (
2 2 1 1
t s C t s C t y + =
) exp( ) exp( ) (
2 1
t t C t C t y o o + =
) exp( ) exp( ) (
2 2 1 1
t s C t s C t y + =
3. Analysis of LTI-Systems
3.1 Initial Response
3.2 Frequency Response
3.3 Transfer Function
3.4 Singularity Functions
3.5 Impulse Response
3.6 Step Response
3.7 Response to an Arbituary Input
Frequency Response
= steady state response of the system
to harmonic input signal
of varying frequency
but constant amplitude


(steady state response = response of the system
after the transient response has decayed to zero)
Frequency Response
) exp( ) ( t j u t u
o
e =
( ) ) exp( t j u j
dt
du
o
e e =
( ) ) exp(
2
2
2
t j u j
dt
u d
o
e e =
( ) ) exp( t j u j
dt
u d
o
m
m
m
e e =
) exp( ) exp( ) ( t j j y t y
o SS
e =
( ) ) exp( ) exp( t j j y j
dt
dy
o
SS
e e =
( ) ) exp( ) exp(
2
2
2
t j j y j
dt
y d
o
SS
e e =
( ) ) exp( ) exp( t j j y j
dt
y d
o
n
n
SS
n
e e =
harmonic input
harmonic output with phase shift
-
-
-
-
-
-
Frequency Response
( )
o
o
u
j y
j G
) exp(
:

e =
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
0 1
1
1
0 1
1
1
...
...
a j a j a j a
b j b j b j b
j G
n
n
n
n
m
m
m
m
+ + + +
+ + + +
=

e e e
e e e
e
Definition:
LTI-system:
( ) e j G
input: u
o
output: y
o
exp(j)
Example 1: FR of the car model

Engine
F t u = ) ( system input:
system output:
1 , 0
0 1
= = b b system parameters: ; ,
0 1
b a m a = =
Engine
F bv
dt
dv
m = +
v t y = ) (
Frequency response:
m j b b mj a j a
b j b
j G
e e e
e
e
+
=
+
=
+
+
=
1 1
) (
0 1
0 1
Trick 3
jd c
G
+
=
1
;
1
2 2
d c
G
+
=
c
d
= tan


Magnitude and Phase

( )
m j b
i G
e
e
+
=
1
Frequency response:
( )
;
1
2
2
e m b
G
+
=
b
me
= tan
Spectral magnitude
characteristics:
Spectral phase
characteristics:
Trick 3
Example 2: Pohls Wheel
Motor
Rot Rot
T
J J
k
dt
d
J
b
dt
d
J
J
= + +
1
2
2

Motor o
T
J dt
d
dt
d
= + +
1
2
2
2
2
e

o 2 =
2
o
e =
Example 8: Pohls Wheel


ext
T u = system input:
system output:
J
b b b
1
, 0 , 0
0 1 2
= = =
system parameters:
2
0 0 1 2
, 2 , 1 e o = = = a a a
ext
T
J dt
d
dt
d 1
2
2
0
2
2
= + + e

= y
frequency response:
( )
( )
2
0
2
0 1
2
2
0 1
2
2
2
1
) (
e e o e e e
e e
e
+ +
=
+ +
+ +
=
j
J
a j a j a
b j b j b
j G
Trick 3
jd c
G
+
=
1
;
1
2 2
d c
G
+
=
c
d
= tan


Frequency Response of Pohls Wheel

Frequency response:
( ) ( )
2
2
2
2
0
2
1 1
oe e e +
=
J
G
2
2
0
2
tan
e e
oe

=
Spectral magnitude characteristics:
Spectral phase characteristics:
Trick 3
oe e e
e
2
1 1
) (
2
2
0
j
J
j G
+
=
Pohls Wheel: Transient Response
Transient Response
SSR
Pohls Wheel: Transient Response
TR Steady State Response
Pohls Wheel: Frequency Response
RESONANCE
3. Analysis of LTI-Systems
3.1 Initial Response
3.2 Frequency Response
3.3 Transfer Function
3.4 Singularity Functions
3.5 Impulse Response
3.6 Step Response
3.7 Response to an Arbituary Input

Laplace-Transformation
{ }
}

= =
0
) ( ) ( ) ( dt t y e t y L s Y
st
}

=
0
) ( ) ( dt t y e s Y
st
Laplace-Transformation
Laplace transformation of simple functions
f(t)
F(s)
1
o(t) 1
2
1 1/s
3
r(t) = t 1/s
2
4
t
2
/2 1/s
3
6
exp( - a t ) 1/(s + a)
7
1 - exp( - t / a ) a / (s (s + a))
8
1/a exp( - t / a) 1/(a s + 1)
Laplace-Transformation
Laplace transformation of simple functions
f(t)
F(s)
9
1/a
2
( exp( - t / a) a t 1 ) 1/(s
2
( s - a))
10
texp( - a t ) 1/(s + a)
2

11
exp( - a t) - exp( - b t) (a - b)/( (s+a)(s+b) )
12
sin( - b t) b/(s
2
+ b
2
)
13
cos( - b t) s/(s
2
+ b
2
)
14
exp( - a t) sin( - b t) b / ((s + a)
2
+ b
2
)
15
exp( - a t ) cos( - b t) (s + b) / ((s + a)
2
+ b
2
)
Laplace-Transformation of Derivatives
Time function Laplace transform
1
c
1
f
1
(t)+c
2
f
2
(t) c
1
F
1
(s)+c
2
F
2
(s)

2 d f(t)
dt
sF(s) f(0-)
3 d
2
f(t)
dt
2
s
2
F(s) s f(0-)
4 d
n
f(t)
dt
n

s
n
F(s) E s
n-k-1
d
k
f(0-)
dt
k
d f(0-)
dt

k= 1
n-1
Laplace-Transformation of Derivatives
Time function Laplace transform
2 d f(t)
dt
s F(s)
3 d
2
f(t)
dt
2
s
2
F(s)
4 d
n
f(t)
dt
n

s
n
F(s)

for zero-initial conditions
Def. Transfer Function
) (
) (
) (
s U
s Y
s G =
LTI-System
0 1
1
1
0 1
1
1
...
...
) (
a s a s a s a
b s b s b s b
s G
n
n
n
n
m
m
m
m
+ + + +
+ + + +
=

Transfer Function Frequency Response

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
0 1
1
1
0 1
1
1
...
...
) (
a j a j a j a
b j b j b j b
j G
n
n
n
n
m
m
m
m
+ + + +
+ + + +
=

e e e
e e e
e
0 1
1
1
0 1
1
1
...
...
) (
a s a s a s a
b s b s b s b
s G
n
n
n
n
m
m
m
m
+ + + +
+ + + +
=

Replace:
s je
Example 1: Car Model for Cruise Control
The differential equation of the car model is:

a) What is the system input, the system output?
b) What are the system parameters?
c) Write down the transfer function of the system.
d) Write down the frequency response.

Engine
F bv
dt
dv
m = +
,
,
Example 1: Solution

Engine
F t u = ) ( a) system input:
system output:
1 , 0
0 1
= = b b b) system parameters: ; ,
0 1
b a m a = =
Engine
F bv
dt
dv
m = +
v t y = ) (
c) transfer function:
b ms a s a
b s b
s G
+
=
+
+
=
1
) (
0 1
0 1
Transfer Function Frequency Response
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
0 1
1
1
0 1
1
1
...
...
) (
a j a j a j a
b j b j b j b
i G
n
n
n
n
m
m
m
m
+ + + +
+ + + +
=

e e e
e e e
e
0 1
1
1
0 1
1
1
...
...
) (
a s a s a s a
b s b s b s b
s G
n
n
n
n
m
m
m
m
+ + + +
+ + + +
=

Replace:
s je
Example 1: Solution
b ms
s G
+
=
1
) (

d) Transfer function:
( )
( ) b j m
j G
+
=
e
e
1
s je
e) Frequency response:
Transfer Function
) (
) (
...
...
) (
0 1
1
1
0 1
1
1
s den
s num
a s a s a s a
b s b s b s b
s G
n
n
n
n
m
m
m
m
=
+ + + +
+ + + +
=

,

( ) ( )( )
( ) ( )( )
n n
m m
ZPG
p s p s p s
z s z s z s
k s G


=

1 1
1 1
...
...
) (
Zero-Pole-Gain Representation:
n
m
ZPG
a
b
k = with gain:
Transfer Function in Normal Representation
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + +
=

0
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
...
...
) (
a
a
s
a
a
s
a
a
s
a
a
a
b
b
s
b
b
s
b
b
s
b
b
b
s G
n
n
n
n
m
m
m
m
( ) ( )
0
,
0 0
0
; ;
b
b
T
a
a
T
a
b
K
i
i
i o
i
i
i P
= = =


( ) ( )
( ) ( ) 1 ...
1 ...
) (
1
1
1
1
1 , 0
1
1
1 , ,
+ + + +
+ + + +
=

s T s T s T
s T s T s T
K s G
n
n
n
n
n
n
m
m
m o
m
m
m o
P
Replace:
) (
) (
...
...
) (
0 1
1
1
0 1
1
1
s den
s num
a s a s a s a
b s b s b s b
s G
n
n
n
n
m
m
m
m
=
+ + + +
+ + + +
=

Summary: Transfer Function
) (
) (
...
...
) (
0 1
1
1
0 1
1
1
s den
s num
a s a s a s a
b s b s b s b
s G
n
n
n
n
m
m
m
m
=
+ + + +
+ + + +
=

0
0
a
b
K
NR
= ( )
0
a
a
T
i
i
i
=
( )
0
,
b
b
T
i
i
i o
=

,

( ) ( )
1 ...
1 ...
) (
1
1
1
1 , 0
1
1
1 , ,
+ + + +
+ + + +
=

s T s T s T
s T s T s T
K s G
n
n
n
n
m
m
m o
m
m
m o
NR
( ) ( )( )
( ) ( )( )
n n
m m
ZPG
p s p s p s
z s z s z s
k s G


=

1 1
1 1
...
...
) (
Normal Representation:
Zero-Pole-Gain Representation:
n
m
ZPG
a
b
k with =
Example 1: Car Model
a) Write down the zeros and poles of the transfer
function for the car model.
b) Write down the transfer function in zero-pole-gain
representation.
c) Write down the transfer function in normal
representation.
d) Derive the transfer function of the normalized
system.

b ms
s G
+
=
1
) (
The transfer function of the car model is:


( )
( )
|
.
|

\
|
+
=

=
m
b
s
m p s
z s
k s G
n
m
ZPG
1 1
) (
b) Zero-Pole-Gain Representation:
b ms
s G
+
=
1
) (
a) Zeros: no zeros
Pole

< 0
system is stable
b = friction coefficient
k
ZPG
= gain of the transfer function
Example 1: Car Model Solution
0 = +b ms
1
p
m
b
s = =
Example 1: Car Model Solution
b a
b
K
NR
1
0
0
= =
( )
b
m
a
a
T = =
0
1
1
1
( ) 0
1
0
0
1
1
1 ,
= = =
b
b
T
o

,

1
1 1
1
1
) (
1
1 , 0
+
=
+
+
=
s
b
m
b s T
s T
K s G
NR
c) Normal Representation:
1 , 0
0 1
= = b b ; ,
0 1
b a m a = = System parameters:

Stability of LTI-Systems
,
Re(s)
Im(s)
pole locations in the s-plane
stable grenzstabil unstable
Stability of LTI-System: Time Functions
,
Time functions associated with pole location in the s-plane
Example 1: Car Model Solution

Engine
F t u ' ) ( = system input:
system output:
1 , 0
0 1
= = b b system parameters:
; 1 ,
0 1
= = a
b
m
a
Engine
F v
dt
dv
b
m
' '
'
= +
' ) ( v t y =
transfer function:
1
1 0
) (
0 1
0 1
+
+
=
+
+
=
s
b
m
a s a
b s b
s G
1
1
) (
+
=
s
b
m
s G
d) normalized system:
Stability of LTI-Systems
,
Re(s)
Im(s)
pole locations in the s-plane
stable grenzstabil unstable
Stability of LTI-System: Time Functions
,
Time functions associated with pole location in the s-plane
Trick 2
jd c
jb a
G
+
+
=
;
2 2
2 2
d c
b a
G
+
+
=
bd ac
ad bc
+

= tan

3. Analysis of LTI-Systems
3.1 Initial Response
3.2 Frequency Response
3.3 Transfer Function
3.4 Singularity Functions
3.5 Impulse Response
3.6 Step Response
3.7 Response to an Arbituary Input
Singularity Functions
impulse function

step function

ramp function

synthesized from functions above:
decaying exponential function
rectangular pulse function
sawtooth pulse function

Homework
Calculate
the Laplace transform
of the first 4 singularity functions.
3. Analysis of LTI-Systems
3.1 Initial Response
3.2 Frequency Response
3.3 Transfer Function
3.4 Singularity Functions
3.5 Impulse Response
3.6 Step Response
3.7 Response to an Arbituary Input
Unit Impulse Function
Impulse Function = Dirac Delta Function.

o(t - a) is a very short, very large spike at time a :

0 t = a

= = ) ( ) ( a t t f o

t = a

a t
The area of the spike is unity:

1 ) ( =
}

dt a t o
area of unit impulse

The impulse function has the dimension 1/s.



( )
( )
|
.
|

\
|
+
=

=
m
b
s
m p s
z s
k s G
n
m
ZPG
1 1
) (
b) Zero-Pole-Gain Representation:
b ms
s G
+
=
1
) (
a) Zeros: no zeros
Pole

< 0
system is stable
b = friction coefficient
k
ZPG
= gain of the transfer function
Example 1: Impulse Response Car Model
0 = +b ms
1
p
m
b
s = =


|
.
|

\
|
+
=
m
b
s
m
s G
1 1
) (
Transfer function in zero-pole-gain representation:
Example 1: Impulse Response Car Model
( ) ( )
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
= =

m
b
s
m
L s G L t y
IR
1 1
) (
1 1
( ) ( ) ( ) s U s G L t y =

) (
1
( ) ( ) ( ) 1 = = t L s U o
Response to any input signal: here: impulse input
Laplace-Transformation
Laplace transformation of simple functions
f(t) F(s)
1
o(t) 1
2
1 1/s
3
r(t) = t 1/s
2
4
t
2
/2 1/s
3
6
exp( - a t ) 1/(s + a)
7
1 - exp( - t / a ) a / (s (s + a))
8
1/a exp( - t / a) 1/(a s + 1)


Example 1: Impulse Response Car Model
( )
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=

m
b
s
L
m
m
b
s
m
L t y
IR
1 1 1 1
1 1
( )
( ) at
a s
L =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

exp
1
1
( ) ( ) t t
m
b
m
t y
IR
o
|
.
|

\
|
= exp
1
From table:
unit impulse response
3. Analysis of LTI-Systems
3.1 Initial Response
3.2 Frequency Response
3.3 Transfer Function
3.4 Singularity Functions
3.5 Impulse Response
3.6 Step Response
3.7 Response to an Arbituary Input
Unit Step Function

o(t - a) is a jump of magnitude 1 at time a :

0 t < a

= = ) ( ) ( a t t f o

1 t > a

a t

unit step is summation of unit impulse functions:

}

=
t
d a a t t t o o ) ( ) (




|
.
|

\
|
+
=
m
b
s
m
s G
1 1
) (
Transfer function in zero-pole-gain representation:
Example 1: Step Response Car Model
( )
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
+
=
|
.
|

\
|
=

s
m
b
s
m
L
s
s G
L t y
IR
1 1 1 ) (
1 1
( ) ( ) ( ) s U s G L t y =

) (
1
( ) ( ) ( )
s
t L s U
1
= = o
Response to any input signal: here: step input
Laplace-Transformation
Laplace transformation of simple functions
f(t)
F(s)
1
o(t) 1
2
1 1/s
3
r(t) = t 1/s
2
4
t
2
/2 1/s
3
6
exp( - a t ) 1/(s + a)
7
1 - exp( - t / a ) a / (s (s + a))
8
1/a exp( - t / a) 1/(a s + 1)
PT2-System: Unit Step Response
3. Analysis of LTI-Systems
3.1 Initial Response
3.2 Frequency Response
3.3 Transfer Function
3.4 Singularity Functions
3.5 Impulse Response
3.6 Step Response
3.7 Response to an Arbitrary Input


Response to an arbitrary input
( ) ( ) ( ) s U s G L t y =

) (
1
( ) ( ) ( ) t u L s U = with
Example: Response of Car to Harmonic Input
Determine the total response of the car model
for cruise control
with time constant T
1
= m/b = 1 s
to the sinusoidal input of u(t) = sin(10t) .
Response of Car to harmonic input
( ) t A t u e sin ) ( =
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
m
b
s
m
s G
1 1
) (
Step 1: Write down the transfer function of the system
Step 2: Calculate the Laplace transform of the input
Step 3: Write down Y(s) = G(s) U(s)
Step 4: Calculate the inverse Laplace transform of Y(s)
2 2
) (
e
e
+
=
s
A
s U
Zero-Pole-Gain-Representation
( ) ( ) ( ) 100
10
1
1 1 1 1
) (
2 2 2
+

+
=
+

|
.
|

\
|
+
=
s s m s
A
m
b
s
m
s Y
e
e
syms s
ilaplace( 1/(s+1) * 10/(s^2 + 100)
( ) ( ) ( )
|
.
|

\
|
+ = t t t
m
t y 10 cos
101
10
10 sin
101
1
exp
101
10 1
) (
Step 3: Write down Y(s) = G(s) U(s)
Step 4: Calculate the inverse Laplace transform of Y(s)
Response of Car to harmonic input
Response of the Car
( ) ( ) ( )
|
.
|

\
|
+ = t t t
m
t y 10 cos
101
10
10 sin
101
1
exp
101
10 1
) (
transient response
decays to 0 as times goes on
steady state response
superposition of 2 harmonic functions
with same frequency as the input signal
3. Analysis of LTI-Systems
3.7 Response to Arbitrary Input
3.8 Summary of Matlab-commands for
System Analysis
3.9 System Modeling and Simulation
3.10 Stability
3.11 Robustness
MatLab-Commands for Analysis
Analysis in Time Domain

initial(sys_ss,x0,[,t]) initial response
impulse(sys[,t]) impulse response
step(sys[,t]) step response
lsim(sys,u,t [,x0]) response to arbituary input signal u
gensig(typ,T)
with
typ = sin
typ = square
typ = pulse
Generate test signal with period T

Sinus
periodic squarefunction with period T
periodic pulsefunction with period T
Analysis in Frequency Domain

evalfr(sys,f) Response at complex frequency f
freqresp(sys,w) Frequency response for frequencies of vector w
bode(sys) Calculates and plots Bode plots of frequency
response
Nyquist Nyquist diagram of frequency response
Nichols
Margin(sys) Calculation of amplitude margin and phase margin
allmargin(sys) Calculation of all stability parameters


3. Analysis of LTI-Systems
3.7 Response to Arbitrary Input
3.8 Summary of Matlab-commands for
System Analysis
3.9 System Modeling and Simulation
3.10 Stability
3.11 Robustness
2 Systems in Series
Transfer function: G
total
(s)= G
1
(s) G
2
(s)
U(s) =U
1
(s)

G
1
(s)
Y
2
(s) = Y(s)
G
2
(s)
Y
1
(s)=U
2
(s)
MatLab: [N,D] = series (N1,D1,N2,D2)
Example: 3 elements in series
A system consists of a P-element, an I-element,
a PT
1
-element in series.

a) Write down the transfer function.

b) What is the frequency response of the system?

c) Write down the steady-state response to a
sinusoidal input with e = 0,5 1/s and u
o
= 5.
,
Example: 4 elements in series
Weglassen

A system consists of a P-element, an I-element,
a PT
1
-element and a T
D
-element in series.

a) Write down the transfer function.

b) What is the frequency response of the system?

c) Write down the steady-state response to a
sinusoidal input with e = 0,5 1/s and u
o
= 5.
,
2 Systems in Parallel
Transfer function:

) ( ) ( ) (
2 1
s G s G s G
total
+ =
MatLab: [Z,N] = parallel (N1,D1,N2,D2)

G
1
(s)

G
2
(s)

U(s)
Y(s)
Y
1
(s)
Y
2
(s)
U
1
(s) = U(s)
U
2
(s) = U(s)
+
Example: series/parallel system
8 ) (
1
= =
R
K s G
s s T
s G
25 , 0
1 1
) (
1
2
= =
A P-element and an I-element are connected.
The transfer functions of these elements are:
,
What is the transfer function of the system,

a) if the two elements are connected in series?
b) if the two elements are connected in parallel?
Weglassen
Shift of Summation Point
Weglassen
Feedback system
Feed-Forward Part
G
ff
(s)
Feedback Part
G
fb
(s)

U(s)
Y(s)
Transfer functions:

negative feedback:


positive feedback:

) ( ) ( 1
) (
) (
s G s G
s G
s G
fb ff
ff
cl
+
=
) ( ) ( 1
) (
) (
s G s G
s G
s G
fb ff
ff
cl

=
+
_
_
+
U
ff
(s)
Y
fb
(s) U
fb
(s)
Y
ff
(s)
Unity Feedback system
) ( 1
) (
) (
s G
s G
s G
o
o
cl
+
=
Feed-Forward Part
G
ff
(s) = G
o
(s)
Feedback Part
G
fb
(s) = 1

U(s)
Y(s)
Transfer function of the closed loop:

) ( ) ( 1
) (
) (
s G s G
s G
s G
fb ff
ff
cl
+
=
+
_
U
ff
(s)
Y
fb
(s) U
fb
(s)
Y
ff
(s)
=1
with G
o
= transfer function of the open loop
+
Example: Unity Feedback control system
Actuator
G
A
(s)
Process
G
Ps
(s)

U(s)
Y(s)
Transfer function of the open loop:
G
o
(s)= G
C
(s) G
A
(s) G
Ps
(s)
Transfer function of the closed loop system:

) ( ) ( (s) G 1
) ( ) ( (s) G
) ( 1
) (
) (
C
C
s G s G
s G s G
s G
s G
s G
PS A
PS A
o
o
cl
+
=
+
=
Plant
-
Controller
G
C
(s)
Example: feedback system
8 ) (
1
= =
R
K s G
s s T
s G
i
25 , 0
1 1
) (
2
= =
A P-element and an I-element shall be used to build a feedback system.
The transfer functions of these elements are:

,
What is the transfer function of the feedback system,

a) if the P-element is in the feed-forward part
and negative feedback is intended?

b) if the I-element is in the feed-forward part
and negative feedback is intended?

c) Calculate for both cases the transfer function for positive feedback.
weglassen
Example: Unity Feedback System
8 ) (
1
= =
R
K s G
s s T
s G
i
25 , 0
1 1
) (
2
= =
We use a P-element and a I-element in series to describe a plant
that is controlled with a unity feedback.

The transfer functions of these elements are:

,
What is the transfer function

a) of the plant (= the open loop)?
b) of the unity feedback system?
weglassen
Elements of Block Diagrams
,
Element Differential eq. TF Block
P-element
PT1-element
I-element
Ku y = K s G = ) (
u K y
dt
dy
T
P
= +
u K
dt
dy
T
I
=
K y
SR
=
1
) (
+
=
Ts
K
s G
P
( ) ) / exp( 1 ) ( T t K t y
P SR
=
Ts
K
s G
I
= ) (
T t K t y
I SR
/ ) ( =
Elements of Block Diagrams
,
Element Differential eq. TF Block
D-element
DT1-element
PT2-element
dt
du
K y
D
= s K s G
D
= ) (
dt
du
K y
dt
dy
T
D
= +
( ) t K y
D SR
o =
1
) (
+
=
Ts
s K
s G
D
( ) T t
T
K
t y
P
SR
/ exp ) ( =
u y
dt
dy D
dt
y d
o
o
= + +
e
e
2 1
2
2
2
1
2 1
1
) (
2
2
+ +
=
s
D
s
s G
o
o
e
e
Example: Block Diagram of a Control System
PI-controller + PT1-plant
3. Analysis of LTI-Systems
3.7 Response to Arbitrary Input
3.8 Summary of Matlab-commands for
System Analysis
3.9 System Modeling and Simulation
3.10 Stability
3.11 Robustness
A dynamic system is stable if
,
1. all poles have negative real parts (compare p.41)
2. the initial response decays to zero
3. the step response has a finite terminal value
4. the gain in the bode plot is lower than 1 for phase shift 180
Poles of a PT2-element
,
u y
dt
dy
dt
y d
o
= + +
2
2
2
2 e o
0 2
2
2
= + +
o
s s e o
2
2
2
1
) (
o
s s
s G
e o + +
=
Poles:
2 / 1
2
2
2 / 1
p s
o
= = e o o
underdamping: ( )
2
2
2
o d
e o e =
2
2
o e e =
o d
d
j p e o =
2 / 1
Poles of a PT2-element
,
underdamping: ( )
2
2
2
o d
e o e =
2
2
o e e =
o d
d
j p e o =
2 / 1
angular frequency of the
damped oscillation
extinction coefficient
Stability of LTI-System: Time Functions
,
Time functions associated with pole location in the s-plane
3. Analysis of LTI-Systems
3.7 Response to Arbitrary Input
3.8 Summary of Matlab-commands for
System Analysis
3.9 System Modeling and Simulation
3.10 Stability
3.11 Robustness
Trick 2
id c
ib a
G
+
+
=
;
2 2
2 2
d c
b a
G
+
+
=
bd ac
ad bc
+

= tan

Trick 3
jd c
G
+
=
1
;
1
2 2
d c
G
+
=
c
d
= tan