External respiration process of obtaining oxygen ( )

from the environment and eliminating carbon dioxide = ()( )

Via respiratory membranes (except for early Enhancements: gill lamellae, alveoli, embryos) succulations It must be: gradient: Increased by introducing external Diffusion 1. Highly vascularized (ventilation) and internal (heart) pumps along with the origin of 2. Epithelium is thin counter current circulation 3. Moist surface 4. Must be in contact with environment (gills)/ environment Most membranes are consisted of simple epithelium adjacent must be brought in contact with respiratory surface (lungs) to endothelial lining of a capillary. Materials must diffuse easily.

Surface area:

External respiration Internal respiration ( ) = > exchange of) carbon dioxide ()( between capillary blood and tissue fluids.

Surface Enhancements: gill lamellae, alveoli, Chief organs area: of external respiration in adult craniates
succulations 1. External, internal gills 2. Oropharyngeal mucosa Increased by introducing external Diffusion gradient: 3. Air sacs/ lungs (ventilation) and internal (heart) pumps along with the origin of 4. Skin counter current circulation Additional: Bushy/filamentous of pectoral fins male 1. Most membranes are outgrowths consisted of simple epithelium adjacent Lepidosirens to endothelial lining of a capillary. Posterior trunk region and thigh African hairy frog 2. Materials must diffuse easily.

external

internal

 ( ) = ()( )

Surface area: Enhancements: gill lamellae, alveoli,

succulations

Diffusion gradient: Increased by introducing external

(ventilation) and internal (heart) pumps along with the origin of counter current circulation Most membranes are consisted of simple epithelium adjacent to endothelial lining of a capillary. Materials must diffuse easily.

Hagfishes
Afferent branchial ducts conduct respiratory water from pharynx pouches Efferent ducts lead from pouches exterior water ---nasopharyngeal duct---> velar chamber pharynx and gill pouches Pharyngocutaneous duct (on the left) connects pharynx with last efferent branchial duct/exterior; it is a modified last gill pouch

Lampreys
No nasal nor buccal route for water passage top the gills water enters and exits pharyngeal pouches via external gill slits Pharynx subdivided into: a. Esophagus b. Ventral respiratory tube gill pouches are lined with gill lamellae and communicate directly with the respiratory tube

 Most elasmobranch have 5 pairs of gill pouches (pentachid) and a pair of spiracles No gill surface develops in the posterior wall of last pouch External gill slits are naked no operculum Spiracle has one-way intake valve and is the exclusive incurrent aperture for respiratory water (in Rajiformes)/ for much water (in sharks) Gill slit gill chamber

Demibranch gill surface occurring in the posterior and anterior

walls of first four chambers. Last chamber lacks demibranch in posterior wall.

Pretrematic demibranch anterior wall Posttrematic demibranch posterior wall

 Interbranchial septum separates 2 demibranchs of a

single gill arch

Holobranch 2 demibranch of single gill arch +

interbranchial septum + cartilages + blood vessels + branchiometric muscles + nerves + connective tissues

Gill rakers protects gills from mechanical injury

Demibranch surface consists of large numbers of transverse shelf like folds to multiply surface area for gaseous exchange.

Counter current flow of blood and water maximizes the

efficiency of gaseous exchange. Water spiracle first two gill pouches Water mouth last three pouches.

 Pressure is nearly always higher in the pharyngeal chamber than in the gill pouches to assure steady uninterrupted flow of water over the gill lamellae
Chimaera resembles teleosts.

Gill Apparatus
1.Pharyngeal arches support holobranchs
2.Water flow: from pharyngeal cavity to the exterior

Gill Apparatus
Difference with Cartilaginous
1.Operculum and opercular chamber 2.Shorter interbranchial septa

Operculum

Branchiostegal membrane supported

by branchiostegal rays Branchiostegal membrane meet ventrally:

opercular chamber

Water Flow
Mouth Open Operculum Closed Lowering pharyngeal floor

Mouth closed Operculum open Water out via opercular cleft Elevating pharyngeal floor

Most bony fishes:

4 holobranchs, 5 gill chambers, spiracle closed

Chondrosteans:
spiracle present

Three Kinds:

1.External Gills: outgrowth from external surface of

one or more gill arches

2.Filamentous Extensions of Internal Gills:

project through gill slits to the exterior

3.Internal Gills: hidden behind larval operculum

 Develop before gill slits open Can be retracted

Develop in: most dipnoans, all amphibians,

few ray-finned

fishes

In Anurans:
External gills develop Pharyngeal pouches in II to V rupture Internal gills developed Fleshy Operculum encloses external and internal gills External gills atrophy Internal gills and operculum absorbed

All Fishes Marine Marine & Lamprey

Fishes that acquire Oxygen from air in air sac

Excrete nitrogenous waste Excrete common marine salt via salt secreting glands on lamellae In salt water: excrete chloride In freshwater: absorb chloride Release carbon dioxide into water

Snatch bubbles above water

Air in contact with orophrayn geal lining

Bubble swallowed

Oxygen extracted in stomach/ intestine

Excess carbon dioxide eliminated through gills

Nares
Cartilaginous & Ray finned Lobe-finned
Nostrils connected with orophrayngeal cavity

External nares: Open

to olfactory sac Incurrent Aperture: water in Excurrent Aperture: waer out

Internal nares: opening

to orophrayngeal cavity

Function: monitor chemicals in solution in

surrounding water

Nasal Canals: Choanae

From paired nasal pits and oronasal groove In mammals:

Olfactory epithelium: restricted to upper chamber Nasal epithelium: ciliated glandular, in lower chamber

Parts: Hair: trap particles Venous plexuses: heat cold air Air sinuses: resonating chamber for vocalization

Whales have no nose, only blowholes on the

top of head

Air (pneumatic) sac

Characteristic of osteichthyans From unpaired evagination from the foregut Filled with gases from atmosphere (N, O, CO2, Ar) Some only develop sac temporarily as an embryo (few marine teleosts and bottom dwellers) - Called SWIM BLADDER in fishes (function: buoyancy) - Called LUNGS in tetrapods (function: respiration)

After budlike anlage for a swim bladder evaginates from foregut, resulting duct may: Retain connection with foregut - Called PHYSOSTOMOUS (duct remains open) - Chondrosteans (duct leads from ventral aspect of esophagus), basal neopterygians (from dorsal side), living dipnoans, some teleosts Close during late development - Called PHYSOCLISTOUS (duct closes) - Many teleosts

Swim bladder
- Lie close to kidneys; retroperitoneal - Push their way caudad in roof of coelom between embryonic parietal peritonium and body wall (may budge into roof of coelom if adult) - May function as a hydrostatic organ, respiratory organ, may participate in sound detection, or communication

HYDROSTATIC ORGAN - Teleosts - By regulating volume of gas in swim bladder, fishes are able to achieve a body density, or specific gravity, equal to that of displaced water at selected depth. - Enables fishes to maintain an appropriate depth in a body of water or hover to a specific location. - Disturbances in water which leads to incomplete stability is solved by frequent gentle lateral undulation of fins of fishes. - Gas in hydrostatic swim bladder - from blood from Red gland (localized rete of small arteries in bladder lining) being transported actively into lumen of bladder - Eventually resorbed into bloodstream in a pocket (modified epithelium) - Pocket is closed during passage of gas into lumen of bladder and relaxed during resorption of gas - Gas bubbled to exterior through mouth for physostomes

RESPIRATORY ORGAN
- Physostomous fishes - Air gulped at water surface => oropharyngeal cavity => swim bladder through oropharyngeal pump => Air (now depleted) => expelled to oropharynx => mouth => back to water - Air is expelled to the oropharynx through a vacuum created by lowering the oropharyngeal floor while mouth and nares are closed.

- Protopterus and Lepidosiren (true lungfishes) - Continuous gulping of air - Gills incapable of providing sufficient oxygen - Can also absorb oxygen through skin (during tropical summer)

- Neoceratodus (dipnoan), Polypterus & Calamoichthys , relict basal neopterygians - Lung functions only when oxygen content in water is low - Polypterus, Amia, Dipnoans - Supplied by arteries arising from 6th embryonic aortic arch (tetrapod condition) - Venous return directly to the left atrium of the heart for dipnoans (tetrapod condition) ORGAN FOR PARTICIPATION IN SOUND DETECTION - Cypriniformes

- Weber ossicles
- connects anterior end of swim bladder with sinus impar which is the extension of the perilymphatic space of inner ear - Clupeiformes - Anterior extension of swim bladder has direct contact with inner ear

ORGAN FOR COMMUNICATION

- Thumping sounds - Contraction of striated muscles attaches to swim bladder - Croaking/Grunting sounds - Air forced back and forth between chambers separated by muscular sphincters

BOTTOM FEEDERS
- Swim bladder degenerates - For optimization of body density - Functions for hovering closer to food supply with minimal expenditure of energy - Analogous to salamanders who live in swift mountain streams

Tetrapod lungs arise as lung bud. The opening in the pharyngeal floor is the glottis. The unpaired lung bud elongates before bigurcating (dividing into two) to form bronchi and lungs. The part of the lung bud between glottis and lungs develops into larynx, tracea and bronchi.

The larynx is a special part of the body that functions as an airway to the lungs as well as providing us with a way of communicating (vocalizing). It is found between the glottis and the upper end of the trachea of tetrapods.

Urodeles -Primitive larynx, single pair of lateral cartilages surounding the glottis -incapable of producing any sound

Nonmammalian tetrapods -2 pair of cartilages: artytenoid & cricoid

Reptiles silent animals but possess larynx, albeit without a vocal cord, in the absence of which they can at best produce a hissing sound.

Birds - rudimentary larynx -evolved a secondary sound producing organ called syrinx

Frog -cricoid cartilage which is a modification of the first tracheal ring and a pair of arytenoid cartilages, which support a pair of vocal cord that vibrates to produce sound. -Males of frogs and toads in addition possess a pair of vocal sacs which are evagination of oral cavity and serve as resonance chambers to amplify sound.

Mammals - paired arytenoids + cricoid + thyroid + small cartilages cuneiforms, corniculates, procricoid including the epiglottis (closes glottis when swallowing) -during ontogeny, paired cricoid and thyroids of embryos unite. -sternothyroid and thyrohyoid provide larynx w/ moblity during swallowing

When not in use for vocalization, the cords are relaxed and exhaled air passes b/w them silently.

When under tension, the cords vibrate, giving rise to sounds. During vocalization, intrinsic muscles of the laynx alter the position of the thyroid and arytenoid cartilages with respect to one another, thereby regulating the tension on the cords.

The pitch (frequency of vibration) of the human voice is the function of the amount of tension w/in the cords.