APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS TDA-301T 2012

Lecture 1: Introduction
By

Prof Alex Sofianos

Bsc Chem Eng, Msc, PhD Ind Chem (Germany), MBL (UNISA)

Course Contents
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Introduction Conservation of Mass Conservation of Energy Entropy An additional Balance Equation Liquefaction, Power Cycles, Explosions Thermodynamic Properties of Real Substances Equilibrium and Stability One Component Thermodynamics of Multi-Component Systems Estimation of Gibbs Energy and Fugacity of a Component in a Mixture 10. Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium in Mixtures 11. Chemical Equilibrium
2

Course Books
1. Chemical, Biochemical & Engineering Thermodynamics Fifth Edition, Stanley I. Sandler , John Wiley and Sons (2006) 2. Introduction to Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics (The Mcgraw-Hill Series in Civil and Environmental Engineering) by J.M. Smith, Hendrick C Van Ness, and Michael Abbott (2004) 3. Introduction to Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics by J.M. Smith (2001) 4. Engineering and Chemical Thermodynamics by Milo D. Koretsky (2003)
3

Course Books - b
5. Introductory Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics by J. Richard Elliott and Carl T. Lira (1999) 6. Problems in Chemical Thermodynamics, With Solutions by Maka Aleksishvili and Shota Sidamonidze (2003) 7. A Textbook of Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics by K.V. Narayanan (2004) 8. Applied Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics /Book & Disk (Springer Textbook) by Dimitrios P. Tassios (1993) 9. Chemical and Engineering Thermodynamics by Stanley I. Sandler (1998)
4

Course strategy: Hints on how to succeed in this course

Try to attend every class on time and conscientiously do assigned reading and problem sets. Actively participate in class/group discussions. Relate knowledge gained in class which can be applied to real-world problems. Creative contributions to group project and presentations. During the course, compile a concise set of notes from lecture and material that includes basic principles and equations of chemical analysis (useful for final exam).

Course strategy: Hints on how to succeed in this course

Questions or doubts about the material being taught can be discussed in class, drop-by for a visit in my office or send an e-mail message. Working in groups for support throughout the term is very important. Assignments and projects to be submitted on deadline But most important of all, do not get scared of the material keep an open mind, relax and try to have fun!

Introduction
What is Thermodynamics ?
Word: Thermodynamics = Thermo + Dynamics
(Greek) (HEAT) + (POWER)

Thermodynamics is the study of energy changes accompanying physical and chemical changes. The term itself clearly suggests what is happening -"thermo", from temperature (heat!) meaning energy, and "dynamics", which means the change over time.
7

Introduction
What is Thermodynamics ?
Thermodynamics is a funny subject. The first time you go through it, you don't understand it at all. The second time you go through it, you think you understand it, except for one or two small points. The third time you go through it, you know you don't understand it, but by that time you are so used to it, it doesn't bother you anymore.
The German physicist Arnold Sommerfeld, (nominated 81 times for the Nobel Prize!) was asked about Thermodynamics
8

Introduction - b
Why is it relevant to you to Chemical Engineering?
Applied thermodynamics is the science of the relationship between heat, work, and systems that analyze energy processes. The energy processes that convert heat energy from available sources such as chemical fuels into mechanical work are the major concern of this science. Thermodynamics consists of a number of analytical and theoretical methods which may be applied to machines for energy conversion

Introduction - c
The origins of Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics began as a way to evaluate the potential of steam engines to provide work. In other words: thermodynamics was dealing with the flow of heat that could be used for industrial processes and locomotion Study of heat engines soon extended from steam engines to internal combustion engines, turbines, heat pumps, air conditioners etc. Understanding of properties of pure fluids (water & steam) and refrigerants and gases (oxygen, nitrogen)
10

History of Thermodynamics
Galileo (circa 1600) : Joseph Black (1760s) : - thermometry quantification - the specific heat - first to use the term "thermodynamics" Count Rumford (1780s): - Mechanical work is an inexhaustible source of calories - a revival of mechanical concept of heat Carnot (1824) : - cyclic operation of an engine - conservation of caloric Helmholtz (1847) : - conservation of energy - (First Law)
11

History of Thermodynamics - b
Joule (late 1800s) : - equivalence of mechanical, electrical and chemical energy of heat Clapeyron (1834): - was a firm believer that heat was a material "fluid. Rudolf Clausius (1862) - Mechanical Theory of Heat Causius-Clapeyron (1868) Equation: phase transition between gas and liquid latent heat Horstman (1872-73) - Entropy application Clausius-Gibbs (1873-78) - Chemical Equilibrium Gibbs Helmholtz (1982) - Free Energy
12

 Thermodynamics:

Revision of Thermodynamics Concepts

These laws are UNIVERSALLY VALID, they cannot be circumvented It tells us nothing about rates. As we will see later, rates depend on driving forces and resistances. While Thermodynamics tells us about driving forces, it tells us nothing about resistances. Also, Thermodynamics is a "macroscopic" science in that it cannot describe the molecular mechanisms of events (although a molecular viewpoint can help us understand thermodynamic properties, as we will see).
13

 Thermodynamics:

Revision of Thermodynamics Concepts-b

Describes macroscopic properties of equilibrium systems Entirely Empirical Built on 4 Laws and simple mathematics Zeroth Law Defines Temperature (T) 1st Law Defines Energy (U) 2nd Law Defines Entropy (S) 3rd Law Gives Numerical Value to Entropy
14

 Thermodynamics Properties

Revision of Thermodynamics Concepts-c

We will distinguish between the properties of a material in several different ways: Measured properties are properties that are directly accessible in the laboratory. Examples include: temperature, pressure, volume

Fundamental properties are properties that are directly

related to the fundamental laws of thermodynamics. These are internal energy and entropy (both will be discussed later). Derived properties are specific relations that include combinations of measured and derived properties. Examples include enthalpy, Gibbs free energy.

15

 Thermodynamics Properties

Revision of Thermodynamics Concepts-d

We will distinguish between the properties of a material in several different ways: Measured properties are properties that are directly accessible in the laboratory. Examples include: temperature, pressure, volume

Fundamental properties are properties that are directly

related to the fundamental laws of thermodynamics. These are internal energy and entropy (both will be discussed later). Derived properties are specific relations that include combinations of measured and derived properties. Examples include enthalpy, Gibbs free energy.

16

Revision of Thermodynamics Concepts-e

NOTE: Both fundamental and derived properties are unmeasurable Properties may be further classified in the following way: An extensive variable is one which depends on system size. Examples include mass, volume. While extensive variables are useful for characterizing the specific system being analyzed. An intensive variable is one which does not depend on system size. Examples include temperature, pressure, density.
17

Revision of Thermodynamics Concepts-f

While it may not be immediately obvious, intensive variables tell us more about the system than extensive variables. In particular, the temperature and pressure are two of the most critical intensive variables. A ratio of extensive variables will yield an intensive variable! (For example, mass/volume -- two extensive variables -- gives density, an intensive variable). This is one way to understand why intensive variables "tell you more". Distinguish between extensive and intensive thermodynamic properties
18

Revision of Thermodynamics Concepts-g

Scales of scrutiny
We will discuss three scales of scrutiny: Macroscopic, microscopic, and molecular. Macroscopic refers to bulk systems that are readily observable. Microscopic refers to regions that are smaller than those observable by the naked eye, but which contain sufficient numbers of molecules so that they may be considered "continuous". The molecular scale refers to a region that is small enough that it includes individual atoms/molecules (so that thermodynamic properties are no longer continuous).
19

Revision of Thermodynamics Concepts-g

Scales of scrutiny
We will discuss three scales of scrutiny: Macroscopic, microscopic, and molecular. Macroscopic refers to bulk systems that are readily observable. Microscopic refers to regions that are smaller than those observable by the naked eye, but which contain sufficient numbers of molecules so that they may be considered "continuous". The molecular scale refers to a region that is small enough that it includes individual atoms/molecules (so that thermodynamic properties are no longer continuous).
20

Revision of Thermodynamics Concepts-h

Measured Properties Examples: Amount: Volume V [=] LxLxL extensive Mass/moles M [=] M or N [=] moles extensive Intensive "volume" (often called specific volume,) =V/M or v=V/N NB: Extensive properties per unit mass, such as specific volume, are intensive properties Temperature: Always intensive. Refers to the degree of hotness. On a molecular scale it is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules/atoms in a system, e.g. Ek = (3/2)kT
21

Relations among temperature scales

22

Revision of Thermodynamics Concepts-i

Obviously, because it is an average, there will be a distribution of kinetic energies of the molecules. The distribution that is observed in gases is called the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution and is how one determines when there are enough gas molecules in a sample to consider the continuum hypothesis (i.e., a macroscopic description of the material) to be valid. Pressure: Always intensive. Refers to the normal force per unit area exerted on a "surface". Pressure itself has no direction (it is a scalar quantity), but it can obtain a direction from the surface. The pressure in a continuous medium is the force exerted on a hypothetical surface.
23

Revision of Thermodynamics Concepts-i

The problem regions In attempting to apply the laws of Thermodynamics in such a way as to solve engineering problems, it is critical that we define exactly the region of space to which we are applying those rules. The universe is all of space. While the laws of thermodynamics could be applied to the universe, it is usually more convenient to break that space up into: The system is the region of space that is of interest in the problem.
24

Revision of Thermodynamics Concepts-i

The System is a spatial domain bounded for the purpose of describing a problem; while the surroundings are the entire spatial domain outside of the system. The communication between them is established through the boundaries of the system. The system and the surroundings make up the universe. The surroundings is all of the space which is not contained within the system. The system is enclosed by a boundary (that may be real or simply a "line"), so that the system can be open, closed, or isolated.
25

26

Revision of Thermodynamics Concepts-i

The System and the surroundings interact with each other. One type of thermodynamic problem is that of predicting changes in a system due to interactions with its surroundings. A system is open if it can exchange mass with the surroundings, and closed if it does not exchange mass with the surroundings. A system is adiabatic if it does not exchange heat energy with the surroundings. We called a system isolated if there is neither heat nor mass crossing its boundaries Distinguish between the universe, system, surroundings, 27 and boundary

Revision of Thermodynamics Summary Definitions

System: The part of the Universe that we choose to study Surroundings: The rest of the Universe Boundary: The surface dividing the System from the Surroundings Systems can be: Open: Mass and Energy can transfer between the System and the Surroundings Closed: Energy can transfer between the System and the Surroundings, but NOT mass Isolated: Neither Mass nor Energy can transfer between the System and the Surroundings
28

Revision of Thermodynamics Summary Definitions

A system is homogeneous if it is has uniform properties throughout, i.e. a property such as density has the same value from point to point in a macroscopic sense A phase is defined as a quantity of matter that is homogeneous throughout. Hence, a homogeneous system is, essentially, a singlephase system. A heterogeneous system is one with non-uniform properties, and hence, is made up of phases which can be distinguished from one another by the presence of interfaces.
29

Revision of Thermodynamics Description of System

Describing systems requires: 1. A few macroscopic properties: p, T, V, n, m, 2. Knowledge if System is Homogeneous or Heterogeneous 3. Knowledge if System is in Equilibrium State 4. Knowledge of the number of components in the system

Two classes of Properties: 1. Extensive: Depend on the size of the system (n, m, V,) 2. Intensive: Independent of the size of the system (T, p, V = V ,)
30

Revision of Thermodynamics Description of System

The state is the thermodynamic coordinate of the system, specified by a number of intensive variables. The degree of freedom is the number of intensive variables needed to define the state of the system. State functions are those whose changes depend on their end states only and are independent of the path between them. A process is the series of successive, intermediate states that the system goes through in order to go from an initial to a final state.

31

Revision of Thermodynamics Description of System

A process is isothermal or isobaric if the temperatures or pressures of all successive steps are the same, respectively. A reversible process is one for which the exchange of energy between the system and its surroundings takes place under vanishing gradients or driving forces; the properties of the system and surroundings are balanced. In a reversible process, each step of the process can be reversed and the original states of the system and surroundings can be restored. Any process that does not take place under infinitesimal gradients is irreversible.
32

Revision of Thermodynamics Description of System

The State of a System at Equilibrium: Defined by the collection of all macroscopic properties that are described by State variables (p, n, T, V,) [INDEPENDENT of the HISTORY of the SYSTEM] Example: For a one-component System, all that is required is n and 2 variables. All other properties then follow. V =f(n,p,T) or p = g(n,V,T) 3 H2 (g, 1 bar, 100 C) means 3 moles; gas; p=1 bar; T=100 C 2 Cl2 (g, 5 L, 50 C) means 2 moles; gas; V=5 L; T=50 C 5 Ar (s, 5 bar, 50 K) means 5 moles; solid; T=50 K
33

Revision of Thermodynamics Description of System

Change of State: (Transformations) Example: 3 H2 (g, 5 bar, 100 K) = 3 H2 (g, 1 bar, 50 K) Path: Sequence of intermediate steps

34

Revision of Thermodynamics Description of System

Process: Describes the Path Reversible (always in Equilibrium) Irreversible (defines direction of time) Adiabatic (no heat transfer between system and surroundings) Isobaric (constant pressure) Isothermal (constant temperature) Isochoric (constant volume)

35

Revision of Thermodynamics Definition of the Equilibrium

Equilibrium is the condition whereby there are no changes with time nor any tendency to change with time By no tendency to change with time, we mean that all driving forces (gradients!)in the system are balanced
a state of absolute rest ; no processes active no tendency to change state no fluxes of energy, mass, or momentum no temperature, pressure, or concentration gradients thermal, mechanical, and chemical equilibrium phase and chemical reaction equilibrium
36

Revision of Thermodynamics Zeroth Law

Process: When a hot object is placed in thermal contact with a cold object, heat flows from the warmer to the cooler object. This continues until they are in thermal equilibrium (the heat flow stops). At this point, both bodies are said to have the same temperature.
37

Revision of Thermodynamics Zeroth Law -b

0th Law of thermodynamics: This intuitively straightforward idea is formalized in the 0th Law of thermodynamics and is made practical through the development of thermometers and temperature scales

Consequence of the zeroth Law:

38

Revision of Thermodynamics Definition of the Temperature

Operational definition of temperature (t) Need : 1. Substance 2. property that depends on t 3. reference points 4. interpolation scheme between ref. pts. Example: Ideal Gas Thermometer with the Celsius scale. Based on Boyles Law

39

Revision of Thermodynamics Definition of the Temperature

Based on Boyles Law

40

41

Revision of Thermodynamics Definition of the Temperature

Based on Boyles Law

the substance is a gas f(t)is the property the boiling point (tb =100 0C) and freezing point (tf =0 C) of water are the reference points) the interpolation is linear

42

Revision of Thermodynamics Definition of the Temperature

For the development of a thermodynamic scale of temperature it is fundamentally important is that it, like all other aspects of thermodynamics, should be general and must not depend on the properties of any one fluid (such as the specific volume of liquid mercury) Experimental evidence indicates that it should be possible to formulate a completely universal temperature scale. The first indication came from the study of gases at densities so low that intermolecular interactions are unimportant (such gases are called ideal gases), where it was found that the product of the absolute pressure P and the molar volume V of any low-density gas away from its condensation line increases with increasing hotness. 43

Revision of Thermodynamics Definition of the Temperature

This observation has been used as the basis for a temperature scale by defining the temperature to be linearly proportional to the product of PV for a particular low-density gas, that is, by choosing T so that: P V = A + RT, where A and R are constants. In fact, without any loss of generality one can define a new temperature T=I+(A/R), o obtain: P V= R T Since neither the absolute pressure nor the molar volume of a gas can ever be negative the temperature defined in this way must always be positive, and therefore this ideal gas temperature scale is an absolute scale (i.e.,T> 0).
44

Revision of Thermodynamics Definition of the Temperature

To complete this low-density gas temperature scale, it remains to specify the constant R, or equivalently the size of a unit of temperature. This can be done in two ways. The first is to specify the value of T for a given value of P V and thus determine the constant R; the second is to choose two reproducible points on a hotness scale and to decide arbitrarily how many units of T correspond to the difference in the PV products at these two fixed points.

45

Revision of Thermodynamics Definition of the Temperature

In fact, it is the latter procedure that is used: the ice point temperature of water and the boiling temperature of water at standard atmospheric pressure (101.3 kPa) provide the two reproducible fixed-point temperatures. What is done then is to allow a low-density gas to achieve thermal equilibriium with water at its ice point and measure the product P V, and then repeat the process at the boiling temperature. One then decides how many units of temperature correspond to this measured difference in the product PV;
46

Revision of Thermodynamics Definition of the Temperature

The choice of 100 units or degrees leads to the Kelvin temperature scale, whereas the use of 180 degrees leads to the Rankine scale. With either of these choices, the constant R can be evaluated for a given low-density gas. The important fact for the formulation of universal temperature scale is that the constant R and hence the temperature scales determined in this way are the same for all low-density gases

47

Revision of Thermodynamics Value of R; Universal Gas Constant

Values of the R The Universal Gas Constant are given in the Table below:

the Kelvin temperature scale for non-scientific uses of temperature are the closely related Fahrenheit and Celsius scales. The size of the degree is the same in both the Celsius and Kelvin temperature scales. 48

Revision of Thermodynamics Value of R; Universal Gas Constant

The zero point of the Celsius scale is arbitrarily chosen to be the ice point temperature of water Hence it was found that: T [K] = T [0C] + 273.15

49

Revision of Thermodynamics Definition of the Temperature

Based on Boyles Law

t =273.15C is called the absolute zero,

50

Revision of Thermodynamics Definition of the Temperature

Based on Boyles Law This suggests defining a new temperature scale (Kelvin) T (K )=t (C )+273.15 T = 0 K corresponds to absolute zero (t =273.15C ) Better reference points used for the Kelvin scale today are T = 0 K (absolute zero) and Ttp = 273.16K (triple point of H2O)

51

Revision of Thermodynamics Definition of the Temperature

Based on Boyles Law

52

Revision of Thermodynamics Definition of the Equilibrium

Equilibrium is the condition whereby there are no changes
with time nor any tendency to change with time since all driving forces (gradients!)in the system are balanced Equilibrium implies: Mechanical equilibrium:

F = 0 ; or P sys = P surr

Thermal equilibrium: . T sys = T surr Thermal Chemical (and chemical reaction) equilibrium: no tendency to change phase or react (we
will yield an equation to mathematically prove state this)

Phase equilibrium ..... Distinguish between equilibrium and steady state!

53

Revision of Thermodynamics Phases and Phase Equilibrium

A phase is a bit of matter characterized by uniform composition and physical structure (not to be confused with the three "phases" of matter that we learn about in elementary school; here we will use phase in a different way. So we can have two coexisting liquid phases, two solid phases etc.) A phase need not be continuous! For example, an emulsion has two phases only one of which is continuous, while the other is "dispersed". When we have two coexisting phases, they are separated by a phase boundary.
54

Revision of Thermodynamics Phases and Phase Equilibrium

Phase equilibrium characterizes a system that has multiple coexisting phases whose individual phases (and their amounts) do not change and have no tendency to change on a macroscopic scale. Note that there will be microscopic transport across the phase boundary, but it will be balanced. This means, for example, that the number of molecules that condense would be balanced by the number that vaporize The phases must also be in mechanical and thermal equilibrium

55

Revision of Thermodynamics Phases and Phase Equilibrium

Examples of phase equilibrium: the equilibrium of a liquid and its saturated vapor, the equilibrium of water and ice at the melting point of ice, the separation of a mixture of water and triethylamine into two immiscible layers, or phases, that differ in density.

56

Revision of Thermodynamics The State Postulate

The state postulate says that the thermodynamic state of a pure (singe-phase) substance may be uniquely defined by knowing two (independent) values of its intensive variables. The state of the system is described by its properties. Once a sufficient number of properties are specified, the rest of the properties assume some values automatically. The number of properties required to fix a state of a system is given by the state postulate, The state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by two independent, intensive properties.
57

Revision of Thermodynamics The State Postulate

The system is called a simple compressible system in the absence of electrical, magnetic, gravitational, motion, and surface tension effects. The state postulate requires that the two properties specified be independent to fix the state. Two properties are independent if one property can be varied while the other one is held constant. Temperature and specific volume, for example, are always independent properties, and together they can fix the state of a simple compressible system. Thus, temperature and pressure are not sufficient to fix the state of a two-phase system.
58

Revision of Thermodynamics The Gibbs Phase Rule

The Gibbs' Phase Rule provides the theoretical foundation, based in thermodynamics, for characterizing the chemical state of a system, and predicting the equilibrium relations of the phases (minerals, melts, liquids, vapors) present as a function of physical conditions such as pressure and temperature. Gibbs' Phase Rule also allows us to construct phase diagrams to represent and interpret phase equilibria in heterogeneous geologic systems. Gibbs Phase Rule is expressed by the simple formulation: P + F = C + 2, where
P is the number of phases in the system, F number of degrees of 59 freedom and C number of components

Revision of Thermodynamics The Gibbs Phase Rule

The Gibbs' Phase Rule allows one to determine the number of degrees of freedom (F) or variance of a chemical system. This is useful for interpreting phase diagrams.

F=2+C-P
Where F is the number of degrees of freedom, C is the number of chemical components and P is the number of phases in the system. The number two is specified because this formulation assumes that both T and P can be varied.
60

Revision of Thermodynamics The Gibbs Phase Rule

Thermodynamics of Solutions
Phases: Part of a system that is chemically and physically homogeneous, bounded by a distinct interface with other phases and physically separable from other phases. Components: Smallest number of chemical entities necessary to describe the composition of every phase in the system. Solutions: Homogeneous mixture of two or more chemical components in which their concentrations may be freely varied within certain limits.

61

Revision of Thermodynamics The Gibbs Phase Rule

Phase Rule significance for Phase Diagrams
Stability fields: Areas (T-P, T-X, P-X space) where a phase or phase assemblage (more than one phase) is stable. Equilibrium boundary lines: These define the limits of stability fields. These represent values of parameters where phases in adjacent fields coexist. Triple points: Points where equilibrium boundary lines meet. All phases in the adjacent stability fields must coexist

62

 Carbon dioxide does not exist in liquid form at atmospheric pressure at any temperature The pressure-temperature phase diagram of CO2 shows that liquid carbon dioxide at 20EC requires a pressure of 30 atmospheres. The lowest pressure at which liquid CO2 exists is at the triple point, namely 5.11 atm at 56.6 0C. Properties Of The Critical Point (Tc,Pc) (For Pure Substances): Temperature and pressure for which liquid and vapor are no longer distinguishable. For T > Tc, liquid and vapor will not co-exist, no matter what 63 the pressure is.

Revision of Thermodynamics Phase Rule and Diagram of CO2

 Properties Of The Critical Point (Tc,Pc) (For Pure Substances): Temperature and pressure for which liquid and vapor are no longer distinguishable. For T > Tc, liquid and vapor will not co-exist, no matter what the pressure is. For P > Pc, liquid and vapor will not co-exist, no matter what the temperature is.

Revision of Thermodynamics Phase Rule and Diagram of CO2

64

Revision of Thermodynamics Phase Rule and Diagram of H2O

The dotted line gives the anomalous behavior of water. The green lines mark the freezing point The blue line the boiling point, showing how they vary with pressure.

65

Revision of Thermodynamics Phase Rule and Diagram of CO2

66

67

Revision of Thermodynamics Ideal Gas Equation

The state of an amount of gas is determined by its pressure, volume, and temperature. From Boyles Law and the Kelvin scale of temperature the modern form of the equation can be derived:

An ideal gas obeys the expression pV =RT at all pressures (no interaction of the gas molecules)

68

Revision of Thermodynamics Ideal Gas Equation

The most frequently introduced form is

PV=nRT

where:

P is the pressure of the gas, V is the volume of the gas, n is the amount of substance of gas (also known as number of moles), T is the temperature of the gas and R is the ideal, or universal, gas constant, R has the value 8.314 JK1mol1 or, also, R = 0.08206 Latmmol1K1.
69

Revision of Thermodynamics Ideal Gas Equation Molar Form

How much gas is present could be specified by giving the mass instead of the chemical amount of gas. Therefore, an alternative form of the ideal gas law may be useful. The chemical amount (n) (in moles) is equal to the mass (m) (in grams) divided by the molar mass (M) (in grams per mole):

n=m/M
By replacing n with m / M, and subsequently introducing density = m/V, we get:

P V = m/M R T
and

P = /M R T
70

Revision of Thermodynamics Ideal Gas Equation Molar Form

This form of the ideal gas law is very useful because it links pressure, density, and temperature in a unique formula independent of the quantity of the considered gas. Alternatively, the law may be written in terms of the specific volume v, the reciprocal of density, as

P v = [R/M] T
The Ideal gas law pV =RT or pV =nRT This is an example of an equation of state

V =f(npT )
71

Isotherms of an ideal gas

The curved lines represent the relationship between pressure (on the vertical, y-axis) and volume (on the horizontal, x-axis) for an ideal gas at different temperatures: lines which are further away from the origin (that is, lines that are nearer to the top right-hand corner of the diagram) represent higher temperatures.
72

73

Revision of Thermodynamics 1st Law

74

Revision of Thermodynamics 2nd Law

75

Revision of Thermodynamics 3nd Law

76

77

78

79

THANK YOU

80