Material Shape

MECH4301 2008 Lecture 6 (1/3) Shape Factors 1/23
Material and Shape:

Textbook Chapters 11 and 12
Lecture 6 (1/3)
Efficient?
Materials for efficient structures
MECH4301 2008
Materials Selection in Mechanical Design
To create a deformation work-stress chart for foams,
use (densification strain * yield strength) as y-axis and
yield strength as x-axis.) See Announcement in Bb.
Shape and mechanical efficiency
Section shape becomes important when materials are loaded
in bending, in torsion, or are used as slender columns.
Examples of Shape:
Shapes to which a material can be formed are limited by the
material itself.
Shapes from: http://www.efunda.com/math/areas/RolledSteelBeamsS.cfm
Is shape
important for
tie rods?
Shape and mode of loading
Standard structural members
Loading:
tension/compression
Area A and shape
I
XX
, I
YY
matter
Area A and shape J
matter
Area A and shape I
min

matter
Area A matters,
not shape
Loading: bending
Loading: torsion
Loading: axial
compression

Certain materials can be made to certain
shapes: what is the best material/shape
combination (for each loading mode)?
Shape efficiency: bending stiffness pp. 289-290
12 12
2 4
o
o
A b
= = I
b
b
Area A is
constant
Area A
o
= b
2

modulus E
unchanged
Neutral
reference
section
Shaped
sections
Define a standard reference section: a solid square, area A = b
2
3
0
L
I E C
S
o
=
3

L
I E C
S =
3
1
L
EI C F
S = =
o
Moments of Sections; p 477
12
3
bh
I =
2 2
12 12

A A E
E
S
S
o o o o
e
I I
I
I
I
I
= = = = =
A
o
= A
Define shape factor for
elastic bending,
measuring efficiency, as
A shaped beam of shape factor for
elastic bending,
e
= 10, is 10 times
stiffer than a solid square section
beam of similar cross section area.
2
12

A E
E
S
S
o o o
e
I
I
I
I
I
= = = =
bending stiffness
I-sections
Properties of the shape factor
The shape factor is dimensionless -- a pure number.
It characterises shape, regardless of size.
Circular tubes
10 ~
e
10 =
e
These sections are

e
times stiffer in bending than a solid
square section of the same cross-sectional area
Increasing size at constant shape = constant SF
Rectangular
Sections
e
= 2
Define a standard reference section: a solid square, area A = b
2
Shape efficiency: bending strength p. 294/5
6 6
2 / 3
0
3
A b
y
I
Z
m
o
o
= = =
* *
o o Z
y
I
M
m
f
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
max
y
Z
I
=
b
b
Area A is
constant
Area A = b
2

yield strength
unchanged
*
o
Neutral
reference
section
m
y
I
Z = , modulus section
Define shape factor for the onset of
plasticity (failure), measuring efficiency, as
* *
o o Z
y
I
M
m
f
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
*
0
*
0
0
o o Z
y
I
M
m
f
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2 / 3 *
*
6
A
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
M
M
o o fo
f
f
= = = =
o
o
A = A
o

* *
o o Z
y
I
M
m
f
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
A shaped beam of shape factor for
bending strength,
f
= 10, is 10 times
stronger than a solid square section
beam of similar cross section area.
2 / 3 *
*
6
A
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
M
M
o o fo
f
f
= = = =
o
o
bending strength
Section shape Area A
m
Second
moment I, m
4
Elastic shape
factor
bh
12
h b
3
b
h
ab t
b a
4
3
t
b
a 3
t
t r 2
) r r (
2
i
2
o
t ~
t
t r
) r r (
4
3
4
i
4
o
t ~
t
) t r (
t
r 3
>>
|
.
|
\
|
t
) t b , h (
) b h ( t 2
>>
+
)
h
b
3 1 ( t h
6
1
3
+
t b , h (
) h / b 1 (
) h / b 3 1 (
t
h
2
1
2
>>
+
+
) t b , h (
t b 2
) h h ( b
i o
>>
~

2
o
3
i
3
o
h t b
2
1
) h h (
12
b
~
) t b , h (
t b
h
2
3
2
o
>>
) t b , h (
) b h ( t 2
>>
+
)
h
b
3 1 ( t h
6
1
3
+
) t b , h (
) h / b 1 (
) h / b 3 1 (
t
h
2
1
2
>>
+
+
h
t
2t
b
h
b
t
2a
2b
h
b
b
t
ho
hi
2ro
2ri
t
Tabulation of shape factors (elastic bending) p. 292/3
t
r
t
r
rt
t r
A
o
e
~ = = = =

3
) 2 (
12 12
2
3
2
t t
t
I
I
I
b
h
h b
bh
A
o
e
=
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
= = =
2 2
3
2
1
12
12 12
I
I
I
A
2
= A
o
2
Second moment of
section, I

Comparison of shapes done so far at constant
material (E, o
y
) and given cross section area, A
How to compare different materials and
different shapes at:

Constant structural stiffness, S ?

Constant failure moment, M
f
?
Material substitution at constant stiffness or
strength allowing for differences in shape
L
m
A
A
A
e
o
e
=
|
.
|
\
|
= = =
12
I 12
I
I
2
2
I
m = mass
A = area
L = length
= density
b = edge length
S = stiffness
I = second moment of area
E = Youngs Modulus

Beam (shaped section).
Bending stiffness of the beam S:
Trick to bring the Shape Factor in ?
Eliminating A from the eq. for the mass gives:
3
L
I E C
S =
( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2 / 1
2 / 1
5
12
E C
L S
m
e

L A m =
Chose materials with largest
( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
2 / 1
E
e
Minimise mass, m, where:
Function
Objective
Constraint
L
F
Area A
Shape factor
part of the
material index
Indices that include shape (1): minimise mass at constant stiffness p. 310
Indices that include shape (2): minimise mass at constant strength p . 311
L
m
A
A
A
f
o
f
= = = =
6
Z
Z
6
Z
Z
2 / 3
2 / 3
m = mass
A = area
L = length
= density
M
f
= bending strength
I = second moment of area
E = Youngs Modulus
Z = section modulus

Beam (shaped section).
Bending strength of the beam M
f
:
Trick to bring the Shape Factor in ?
Eliminating A from the equation for m gives:
* *
o o Z
y
I
M
m
f
= =
( )
( )
3 / 2
*
3 / 2
6
o

f
f
L M m =
L A m =
Chose materials with largest
( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
o
3 / 2
*
f
Minimise mass, m, where:
Function
Objective
Constraint
L
F
Area A
Shape factor
part of the
material index
From Lecture 4: Demystifying Material Indices (elastic bending)
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2 / 1
1
1
2 / 1
5
1
12
E C
L S
m

|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2 / 1
2
2
2 / 1
5
2
12
E C
L S
m

2
1
1
2 / 1
1
2 / 1
2
2
1
2
M
M E
E m
m
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
For given shape, the reduction in mass at

constant bending stiffness is determined by
the ratio of material indices.
Same conclusion applies to bending strength.
Unshaped mass,
Material 1
Unshaped mass
Material 2
Demystifying Shape Factors (elastic bending)
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2 / 1
1
1
2 / 1
5
12
E C
L S
m
o

( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2 / 1
1
1
2 / 1
5
12
E C
L S
m
e
s

2 / 1
1
2 / 1
1
2 / 1
1
1
1
) (

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
E
E m
m
o
s
Shaping (material fixed) at constant bending
stiffness reduces the mass of the
component in proportion to
e
-1/2
.
Optimum approach: simultaneously
maximise both M and .
Unshaped
mass
Shaped mass, same
material, same S
Q: Is the cross section
area constant when going
from m
o
to m
s
?

Demystifying Shape Factors (failure of beams)
( )
( )
3 / 2
*
3 / 2
6
o

L M m
f o
=
( )
( )
3 / 2
*
3 / 2
6
o

f
f s
L M m =
( )
( )
3 / 2 3 / 2
*
3 / 2
*
1
f
f
o
s
m
m
o
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
Unshaped
mass
Shaped mass,
same material,
same M
f

Shaping (material fixed) at constant
bending strength reduces the mass of the
component in proportion to
f
-2/3
.

Optimum approach: simultaneously
maximise both M and .
EXAM QUESTION: Is the
cross section area constant
when going from m
o
to m
s
?
Material , Mg/m
3
E, GPa
e,max

1020 Steel 7.85 205 65 1.8 14.7
6061 Al 2.70 70 44 3.1 20.4
GFRP 1.75 28 39 2.9 18.9
Wood (oak) 0.9 13 8 4 11.4
/
2 / 1
E ( ) / E
1/2
max e,
Practical examples of material-shape combinations

/
2 / 1
E
Materials for stiff beams of minimum weight
Fixed shape (
e
fixed): choose materials with greatest
Shape
e
a variable: choose materials with greatest
Same shape for all (up to
e
= 8): wood is best
Maximum shape factor (
e
=
e,max
): Al-alloy is best
Steel recovers some performance through high
e,max
( ) / E
1/2
max e,

Density (typical) (Mg/m^3)
0.01 0.1 1 10
Y
o
u
n
g
'
s

M
o
d
u
l
u
s

(
t
y
p
i
c
a
l
)

(
G
P
a
)
1e-004
1e-003
0.01
0.1
1
10
100
1000
Concrete
Titanium
Cork
PP
Flexible Polymer Foams
Rigid Polymer Foams
Tungsten Carbides
Steels Nickel alloys
Copper alloys
Zinc alloys
Lead alloys
Silicon Carbide
Alumina
Boron Carbide
Silicon
Al alloys
Mg alloys
CFRP
GFRP
Bamboo
Wood
Plywood
PET
PTFE
PE
PUR
PVC
EVA
Silicone
Polyurethane
Neoprene
Butyl Rubber
Polyisoprene
C
E
=
2 / 1
Note that new material with
Shape on selection charts: stiffness p. 312/3
Al:
e
= 44
Al:
e
= 1
Density (Mg/m
3
)

Y
o
u
n
g
s

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

(
G
P
a
)

( )
( )
( )
e
e
e
e
e
e
E
E
E

/
/
/
2 / 1
2 / 1
2 / 1
= =
e
s
/ =
e
s
E E / =
Shape on selection charts: stiffness p. 314
Density (Mg/m^3)
0.1 1 10
Y
o
u
n
g
'
s

M
o
d
u
l
u
s

(
G
P
a
)
1
10
100
1000
Al Sf=44
Bamboo SF=1
Steel SF = 65
Bamboo SF =5.6
steel SF=1
Al SF =1
Drag the
labels
along lines
of slope 1
Selection line
of slope 2
Unshaped
Steel SF =1
Unshaped
Aluminium
Unshaped
Bamboo SF= 1
Shaped
aluminium
SF = 44
Shaping
makes
Steel
competitive
with Al and
Bamboo
Shaped Bamboo
SF=5.6
Shaped steel
SF=65
Note that new material with
( )
( )
( )
( )
2
3 / 2
2 *
2
2
3 / 2
*
3 / 2
*
/
/
/
f
f
f
f
f
f

o

o
o
= =
2 * *
/
f
s
o o =
2
/
f
s
=
Shape on selection charts: strength p. 314
o
3 / 2
*
100
2
=
f
steel
1
2
=
f
steel
Shape on selection charts: strength p. 314
Density (Mg/m^3)
0.01 0.1 1 10
T
e
n
s
i
l
e

S
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

(
M
P
a
)
10
100
1000
Bamboo SF =1
Al 2024, SF=10 SF^2=100
steels SF=7 SF^2=49
bamboo SF = 2 SF^2=4
steel SF =1
Al Sf =1
selection line slope 1.5
Selection line of
slope 1.5
Shaped Steel
SF=7; (SF)
2
=49
Shaped
Bamboo SF=2
(SF)
2
=4

Shaping
makes
Steel
competitive
with Al and
Bamboo
Shaped Aluminium
SF=10; (SF)
2
=100
Shaping at constant cross section A increases the
bending stiffness or strength by at constant mass.
This stems from the definition of shape factor

e
= S/S
o
= I/I
o
f
= M/M
o
= Z/Z
o

Dragging the labels in the CES charts is equivalent
to shaping at constant bending stiffness or strength,
so the mass is reduced by 1/
e
1/2
(stiffness) or
by 1/
f
2/3
(strength).
Exam question: (to get everybody confused!)
Examples of indices including shape p. 318
Same as elastic
bending
This afternoon: solve Exercises E8.1,
8.8, 8.9 and 8.12.
Leave 8.6 / 8.7 for next sessions.
-Tutorial 3 (E8. Materials and Shape) (6 Exercises). Solve in this
order: E8.1; E8.8; E8.9; E8.12; (solve either E8.6 or E8.7) (see
hints and instructions in BB).
Exercise #6 for Tute 3: Show that the shape factors of Table 12.5 (p.
325) are a factor 4/3 = 1.33 too large.
Example using CES: dragging labels

End of Lecture 6
two more lectures re. shape factors to follow
Shape factors for twisting and buckling
2
T
2
0
o
T
A
K
14 . 7 14 . 0 K
K
K
S
S
= = = = A
To
T
3/2
A
Q
8 . 4
Q
Q
= =
o
fT
Failure under torsion p. 296

Buckling p. 296
2
12

A E
E
S
S
o o
e
I
I
I
= = =
Same as elastic
bending
Elastic twisting p. 294


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MECH4301 2008 Lecture 6 (1/3) Shape Factors 1/23

Material and Shape:

These sections are

For given shape, the reduction in mass at

Practical examples of material-shape combinations

MECH4301 2008 Lecture 6 (1/3) Shape Factors 19/23

Failure under torsion p. 296

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