Radiolaria are holoplanktonic protozoa and form part of the zooplankton, they are non-motile (except when flagella-bearing

reproductive swarmers are produced) but contain buoyancy enhancing structures; they may be solitary or colonial. Formally they belong to the Phyllum Protista, Subphylum Sarcodina, Class Actinopoda, Subclass Radiolaria. The sister Subclass Acantharia have skeletons composed of strontium sulphate which is easily dissolved in seawater and are not preserved in the fossil record. Within the Subclass Radiolaria there are two important super-orders.

 First recorded occurrences of Radiolaria are from the latest PreCambrian, they are generally thought to have been restricted to shallow water habitats. By the Silurian deep water forms are believed to have evolved. All early Radiolaria are spumellarians, the first possible nassellarians appear in the Carboniferous and definite true nassellarians do not appear until the Triassic. During the late Palaeozoic Radiolaria show a gradual decline until the end of the Jurassic when there is a rapid diversification, this coincides with the diversification of the dinoflagellates which may have represented an increased source of food for the Radiolaria. It is thought that the evolution of diatoms in the Cretaceous may have had a significant effect on radiolarian evolution due to competition for silica (diatoms also use silica to build their skeleton); it is commonly accepted that radiolarian skeletons have become finer and less robust from this time.

 The Tripylea which includes the Phaedaria which have skeletons composed of hollow silica bars joined by organic material, which are not commonly preserved, and the Polycystina which form skeletons of pure opal and are therefore more resistant to dissolution in seawater and hence more commonly preserved in the fossil record. The Polycystina may be divided into two suborders the Spumellaria and the Nassellaria. They are wholly marine, the most relatively commonly preserved and therefore studied members of the formal Subclass Radiolaria. It must be remembered, however, that seawater is under saturated with respect to silica and the degree of preservation of Radiolaria depends on the robustness of the skeleton, depositional and burial conditions and diagenesis.

 Despite being single-celled protozoans Radiolaria are quite complex, sophisticated organisms. The body is divided into a central capsule which contains the endoplasm and nucleus (or nucleii) and the extracapsulum which contains peripheral cytoplasm composed of a frothy bubble-like envelope of alveoli and a corona of ray-like axopodia and rhizopodia. They feed on other zooplankton, phytoplankton and detritus using their axopodia and rhizopodia in a similar fashion to foraminifera, except that Radiolaria seldom possess pseudopodia and their rhizopodia are not as branching or anastomosing as in foraminifera. Symbiotic algae (including dinoflagellates) often occur in the extracapsulum.

The central capsulum is separated from the extracapsulum by the central capsular wall, cytoplasmic strands called fusules link the central capsulum and extracapsulum via pores in this wall. Fusules are unique to Radiolaria and their close relatives the Acantharia. Because Radiolaria are heterotrophic they are not limited to the photic zone and have been found at water depths as great as 4000m. However, because many living Radiolaria contain symbiotic photosynthesising algae they must spend at least daylight hours within the photic zone. Skeletal elements of radiolaria are covered with a layer of cytoplasm which is rapidly withdrawn if the organism is disturbed. It is suggested new skeletal material is formed within this sheath (called the cytokalyamma) and that it acts somehow like a dynamic mould.

Morphological components of Radiolaria

Based on:- 1- Composition and structure of skeleton. 2- Nature of perforation in the central capsule member. 3- Member and arrangement of spines.

Kingdom: Protista Phylum: Sarcodina Class: Actinopoda Subclass: Radiolaria 1- Super order: Polysystina 2- Super order:- Phaeodaria Subclass: Acantharia

1- Subclass Radiolaria a) Superorder Polycystinea:- Include Spumellaria and nassellaria. Their skeletons made of amorphous silica (SiO2). They are present in sediments since Cambrian b) Superorder: Phaeodoria skeleton's silica is supported by a matrix of organic matter (95% organic and 5% silica). That means after death polycystina only occurs. They occur rarely in the sediments since Miocene. 2- Subclass: Acantharia skeleton of strontium sulfate crystals (SrSO4), which do not fossilize.

Spumellaria images: a) Entactinosphaera, b) Albaillella, c) Actinomma and d) Dictyastrum, from Brasier 1980.

Nasellarian images: a) Campylacantha, b) Acanthocircus, c) Bathropyramis, d) Podocyrtis and e) Cyrtocapsa, from Brasier 1980.

Radiolarians are single-celled, free-floating marine animals (protests) (marine

zooplankton) with spherical cells, mainly occur in the photic zone. Size average between 100-2000 m in diameter. Living animal consists of protoplasm (endoplasm and ectoplasm) and nucleus surrounded by layer/layers of lattice shell from which axopodia and spines radiate. The ectoplasm contains numerous symbiotic algae, especially zooxanthellae, that provide most of the cell's energy. They reproduce asexually. Shells sink after death to form the so-called radiolarian ooze of deep ocean floors. They occur near the seaward of the continental slope where divergent surface currents bring up nutrients from the depths. They also blooms seasonally with high numbers (100 000 /m3) at the polar regions with the diatoms where silica and food are plentiful.

Radiolarians distribution in the modern ocean, from Brasier, 1980.

They occur in the sedimentary record since the middle Cambrian. Their record indicate that they did not flourish in the cooler periods as the diatoms.

Changes in species diversity of polycystine Radiolaria through time, from Brasier, 1980.

1. Radiolarian fossils in sediments used in determinations of the age of the sediments that of particular importance for the oil industry when the other fossils are absent. 2. Studies of the geological evolution of the continental land masses and ocean basins. 3. Construction of the paleoecology and paleoclimatology of certain periods and the Present.

 Radiolaria are often found in standard micropalaeontological preparations (i.e. those aimed at recovering foraminifera). However for the best results samples are washed using a weak (10%) concentration of hydroflouric acid. It is also possible to differentially etch Radiolaria from cherts using hydrofluoric acid. This is extremely dangerous and must only be carried out in a fume cupboard with full protective clothing and as such should be left to trained personel only.

 Radiolaria are often smaller than foraminifera but may be veiwed using the same techniques as those described for foraminifera, and they can be picked and mounted in the same way. They can also be prepared in strew mounts on glass slides.