Folds

Fold
Folds form from curving, buckling, and bending of originally planar rock layers (e.g., beds, foliation) through ductile deformation. Practically, folds are defined by the attitude of their axis and/or hingeline, axial plane Folds occur in any geologic layer such as bedding, lava flow layers, foliation. Folds range in size from mm to km. Are a manifestation of ductile deformation. i.e., form at depth where T, P are high and fracturing does not occur.
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Single Folded Surface

Hingeline Lines joining points of maximum (tightest) curvature Inflection lines Lines connecting points of zero curvature Half-wavelength: distance between two inflection points Fold domains: are separated by the inflection lines These fold terminologies are only based on geometry:
Antiform: Domains with upward closure (- curvature) Synform: Domains with downward closure (+ curvature) Neutral fold: Fold that closes sideways

Single Folded Surface

Anticline A fold with the oldest rocks at the core (i.e., at the concave side). Syncline A fold with the youngest rocks at the core. Note: In simply-folded areas, anticlines are generally antiformal, and synclines are synformal. However, in refolded areas this is not generally the case.
Antiformal syncline Synformal anticline
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Facing
The direction of younging along the axial plane of a fold.

Antiformal anticlines or synformal synclines are upward facing folds

Antiformal synclines or synformal anticlines are downward facing folds. This is because of overturning due to refolding

Hingeline
A special fold axis, connecting points of maximum curvature on the folded surface

Hingeline is a physical line that can be marked on the folded layer with a pen and be measured directly with a geologic compass
Folds may have one or more hingelines
Example of multi hingeline fold: box fold

Non-cylindrical folds have hingeline (but no axis) Hingeline & axis are the same for cylindrical folds
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More Terminology
Hinge zone: The region around the hingeline Limb: The region between two adjacent hingelines Axial trend: Refers to the attitude of the hingeline A hingeline generally undulates; i.e., changes attitude for a given fold
This produces structures such as: culmination, depression, saddle, dome, basin
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Folds in Multi-layers
In a multi-layered folded rock, every folded layer has its own hingeline A plane that contains all these hingelines is called the hinge plane (or hinge surface if curved) Hinge plane may or may not be parallel to the axial plane

Fold in Multi-layers
Median Surface: Surface passing through the inflection points of a single folded layer. Inflection surface: A surface passing through the inflection lines of all the folded layers.

Cylindrical Fold
Every where on a cylindrical fold, there is a line (axis) which parallels the hingeline i.e., hingeline and axis of cylindrical folds are parallel Fold axis (not a physical line) cannot be marked on the folded surface There are infinitely many such lines (axes) on the cylindrically folded layer and are not restricted to the hinge area of the fold

The fold axis, therefore cannot be directly measured in the field; it has to be determined indirectly, using a Brunton compass (to measure the limbs) and a stereonet (to find the axis along the intersection of the limbs)!
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Fold Axis
An imaginary line that generates the fold if it is moved parallel to itself in space Fold axis makes sense only for cylindrical folds Most folds are non-cylindrical at a large scale These can be broken into smaller cylindrical parts (domains or segments) Axis (ln) is defined by the intersection of the:
Axial plane (S1) (or axial plane cleavage if it exists) with the folded layer (S1), i.e, (S1xSo) Limbs (Sn) of the fold (SnxSn), where n could be any generation (0, 1, 2, )
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Fold Shape
Tightness: Is defined by the interlimb angle

Interlimb angle: The angle between the tangents to the fold surface drawn through the inflection lines
Shape Interlimb angle gentle 180o-120o open 120o-70o close 70o-30o tight 30o - 0o isoclinal 0o elastica Negative values
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Fold Attitude
The attitude of a fold is given by the attitude of its: Axial plane (strike, dip) Hingeline (trend, plunge)
Vertical fold: vertical axial plane and vertical axis Upright plunging: vertical axial plane, plunging axis Upright horizontal: vertical axial plane, horizontal axis Inclined plunging: inclined axial plane, plunging axis Inclined horizontal: inclined axial plane, horizontal axis Reclined: plunging axis trends along the dip of the inclined axial plane Recumbent fold: horizontal axis and axial plane

Folds are classified based on the relative values of the dip of the axial plane, and the plunge of the hingeline See Fleuty, 1964 Fold Orientations
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Axial Plane m- AP
Axial plane of a fold is an imaginary plane that contains the axes of several folded layers in a fold The axial plane and hinge plane are the same only in cylindrical folds
in which axis is parallel to the hingeline

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Axial Trace - AT
Axial trace of a fold is the line of intersection of the axial plane of a fold (AP) with any other plane such as: a folded layer (in this special case, the axial trace is the same as hingeline or axis), i.e., AT = S1xS0, AT= S2xS1 a scarp, joint, or any other inclined plane horizontal plane of a map Having two axial traces we can find the axial plane! There are an infinite number of axial traces for a fold (only need one or two of them for finding the axial plane)!
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Axis vs. Axial Trace

Axis is a special axial trace They are generally not the same thing The axial trace of a non-plunging fold is parallel to the strike of the fold limbs, which are parallel to the axis The axial trace of an inclined, plunging fold on the horizontal plane (map), is not parallel to the fold axis!
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Box Fold
Polyclinal Fold Folds with more than two axial plane (rare) Conjugate fold: Has converging paired axial surfaces
Axial planes intersect along the axis (if cylindrical) Axial plane may displace another axial plane

Box Fold : Conjugate folds with round hinge zones Kink Fold: Conjugate fold with sharp hinge zones
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Types of Folds
Monocline:
A local steepening in otherwise uniformly dipping strata.

Isoclinal fold:
Limbs are parallel to the axial plane.

Recumbent fold:
Fold with horizontal axial plane. Commonly isoclinal.

Symmetric vs. asymmetric folds.

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Symmetric Folds
The median plane and the axial plane are perpendicular, and the axial plane divides the fold into mirror quarter waves Polyharmonic fold: Fold waves with two or more orders of wavelengths and amplitude. Large polyharmonic folds have parasitic (smaller) fold.

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Asymmetry
The asymmetry of smaller folds is:
Z-, S-, W-, or M-shaped

These asymmetries are defined looking downplunge, or projected onto a horizontal plane The asymmetries of the smaller folds can be used to determine the closure of the larger fold

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