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Performance Characteristics of Sensors and Actuators

(Chapter 2)

Input and Output

Sensors Input: stimulus or measurand (temperature pressure, light intensity, etc.) Ouput: electrical signal (voltage, current frequency, phase, etc.) Variations: output can sometimes be displacement (thermometers, magnetostrictive and piezoelectric sensors). Some sensors combine sensing and actuation

Input and Output

Actuators Input: electrical signal (voltage, current frequency, phase, etc.) Output: mechanical(force, pressure, displacement) or display function (dial indication, light, display, etc.)

Transfer function
Relation between input and output Other names:

Input

output characteristic function transfer characteristic function response

Transfer function (cont.)


Linear or nonlinear Single valued or not One dimensional or multi dimensional

Single input, single output Multiple inputs, single output

In most cases:

Difficult to describe mathematically (given graphically) Often must be defined from calibration data Often only defined on a portion of the range of the device

Transfer function (cont.)

T1 to T2 - approximately linear

Most useful range Typically a small portion of the range Often taken as linear

S = f(x)

Transfer function (cont.)

Other data from transfer function

saturation sensitivity full scale range (input and output) hysteresis deadband etc.

Transfer function (cont.)

Other types of transfer functions


Response with respect to a given quantity Performance characteristics (reliability curves, etc.) Viewed as the relation between any two characteristics

Impedance and impedance matching

Input impedance: ratio of the rated voltage and the resulting current through the input port of the device with the output port open (no load) Output impedance: ratio of the rated output voltage and short circuit current of the port (i.e. current when the output is shorted) These are definitions for two-port devices

Impedance (cont.)

Sensors: only output impedance is relevant Actuators: only input impedance is relevant Can also define mechanical impedance

Not needed - impedance is important for interfacing Will only talk about electrical impedance

Impedance (cont.)

Why is it important? It affects performance Example: 500 W sensor (output impedance) connected to a processor

b. Processor input impedance is infinite c. Processor input impedance is 500 W

Impedance (cont.)
Example. Strain gauge: impedance is 500 W at zero strain, 750 W at measured strain b: sensor output: 2.5V (at zero strain), 3V at measured strain c. sensor output: 1.666V to 1.875V Result:

Loading in case c. Reduced sensitivity(smaller output change for the same strain input) b. is better than c (in this case). Infinite impedance is best.

Impedance (cont.)

Current sensors: impedance is low - need low impedance at processor Same considerations for actuators Impedance matching:

Sometimes can be done directly (C-mos devices have very high input impedances) Often need a matching circuit From high to low or from low to high impedances

Impedance (cont.)

Impedance can (and often is) complex: Z=R+jX In addition to the previous:

Conjugate matching (Zin=Zout*) - maximum power transfer

Critical for actuators! Usually not important for sensors Zin=R+jX, Zout*=R-jX.

No reflection matching (Zin=Zout) - no reflection from load

Important at high frequencies (transmission lines) Equally important for sensors and actuators (antennas)

Range and Span

Range: lowest and highest values of the stimulus Span: the arithmetic difference between the highest and lowest values of the stimulus that can be sensed within acceptable errors Input full scale (IFS) = span Output full scale (OFS): difference between the upper and lower ranges of the output of the sensor corresponding to the span of the sensor Dynamic range: ratio between the upper and lower limits and is usually expressed in db

Range and Span (Cont)


Example: a sensors is designed for: -30 C to +80 C to output 2.5V to 1.2V Range: -30C and +80 C Span: 80- (-30)=110 C Input full scale = 110 C Output full scale = 2.5V-1.2V=1.3V Dynamic range=20log(140/30)=13.38db

Range and Span (cont.)

Range, span, full scale and dynamic range may be applied to actuators in the same way Span and full scale may also be given in db when the scale is large. In actuators, there are other properties that come into play:

Maximum force, torque, displacement Acceleration Time response, delays, etc.

Accuracy, errors, repeatability


Errors: deviation from ideal Sources: materials used construction tolerances ageing operational errors calibration errors matching (impedance) or loading errors noise many others

Accuracy, errors (cont.)

Errors: defined as follows:

a. As a difference: e = V V0 (V0 is the actual value, V is that measured value (the stimulus in the case of sensors or output in actuators). b. As a percentage of full scale (span for example) e = t/(tmax-tmin)*100 where tmax and tmin are the maximum and minimum values the device is designed to operate at. c. In terms of the output signal expected.

Example: errors

Example: A thermistor is used to measure temperature between 30 and +80 C and produce an output voltage between 2.8V and 1.5V. Because of errors, the accuracy in sensing is 0.5C.

Example (cont)

a. In terms of the input as 0.5C b. Percentage of input: e = 0.5/(80+30)*100 = 0.454% c. In terms of output. From the transfer function: e= 0.059V.

More on errors
Static errors: not time dependent Dynamic errors: time dependent Random errors: Different errors in a parameter or at different operating times Systemic errors: errors are constant at all times and conditions

Error limits - linear TF

Linear transfer functions


Error equal along the transfer function Error increases or decreases along TF Error limits - two lines that delimit the output

Error limits - nonlinear TF

Nonlinear transfer functions


Error change along the transfer function Maximum error from ideal Average error Limiting curves follow ideal transfer function

Error limits - nonlinear TF

Calibration curve may be used when available


Lower errors Maximum error from calibration curve Average error Limiting curves follow the actual transfer function (calibration)

Repeatability

Also called reproducibility: failure of the sensor or actuator to represent the same value (i.e. stimulus or input) under identical conditions when measured at different times.

usually associated with calibration viewed as an error. given as the maximum difference between two readings taken at different times under identical input conditions. error given as percentage of input full scale.

Sensitivity
Sensitivity of a sensor is defined as the change in output for a given change in input, usually a unit change in input. Sensitivity represents the slope of the transfer function. Same for actuators

Sensitivity
Sensitivity of a sensor is defined as the change in output for a given change in input, usually a unit change in input. Sensitivity represents the slope of the transfer function. Same for actuators

Sensitivity (cont.)

Example for a linear transfer function:


Note the units a is the slope

For the transfer function in (2):


d aT + b = 1 dR dR = a dT W C

Sensitivity (cont.)
Usually associated with sensors Applies equally well to actuators Can be highly nonlinear along the transfer function Measured in units of output quantity per units of input quantity (W/C, N/V, V/C, etc.)

Sensitivity analysis (cont.)

A difficult task

there is noise a combined function of sensitivities of various components, including that of the transduction sections. device may be rather complex with multiple transduction steps, each one with its own sensitivity, sources of noise and other parameters some properties may be known but many may not be known or may only be approximate. Applies equally well to actuators

Sensitivity analysis (cont.)

An important task provides information on the output range of signals one can expect, provides information on the noise and errors to expect. may provide clues as to how the effects of noise and errors may be minimized Provides clues on the proper choice of sensors, their connections and other steps that may be taken to improve performance (amplifiers, feedback, etc.).

Example - additive errors

Fiber optic pressure sensor


Pressure changes the length of the fiber This changes the phase of the output Three transduction steps

Example-1 - no errors present

Individual sensitivities
Overall sensitivity But, x2=y1 (output of transducer 1 is the input to transducer 2) and x3=y2

s1 =

dy1 , dx1

s2 =

dy2 , dx2

s3 =

dy3 dx3

S = s 1s2 s3 =

dy1 dy2 dy3 dx1 dx2 dx3

S = s 1s 2 s 3 =

dy3 dx1

Example -1 - errors present


First output is y1=y01 + y1. y01 = Output without error 2nd output y = s y 0 + y

2 2 1

0 + s y + y + y2 = y2 2 1 2

3rd output
0 + s y + y + y = y 0 + s s y + s y + y y3 = s 3 y2 2 1 2 3 2 3 1 3 2 3 3

Last 3 terms - additive errors

Example -2 - differential sensors


Output proportional to difference between the outputs of the sensors Output is zero when T1=T2 Common mode signals cancel (noise) Errors cancel (mostly)

Example -2 - (cont.)
s1 = dy1 , dx1 s2 = dy2 dx2

y = y1 - y2 = s1 x1 - s 2yx
s= d y1 - y2 d x1 - x2

Example -3 - sensors in series


Output is in series Input in parallel (all sensors at same temperature) Outputs add up Noise multiplied by product of sensitivities

y = y1 + y2 + y3 + ... + yn = (s1 + s2 + s3 + ... + s n)x = nsx


S = ns

Hysteresis

Hysteresis (literally lag)- the deviation of the sensors output at any given point when approached from two different directions Caused by electrical or mechanical systems

Magnetization Thermal properties Loose linkages

Hysteresis - Example

If temperature is measured, at a rated temperature of 50C, the output might be 4.95V when temperature increases but 5.05V when temperature decreases. This is an error of 0.5% (for an output full scale of 10V in this idealized example). Hysteresis is also present in actuators and, in the case of motion, more common than in sensors.

Nonlinearity

A property of the sensor (nonlinear transfer function) or: Introduced by errors Nonlinearity errors influence accuracy. Nonlinearity is defined as the maximum deviation from the ideal linear transfer function. The latter is not usually known or useful Nonlinearity must be deduced from the actual transfer function or from the calibration curve A few methods to do so:

Nonlinearity (cont.)

a. by use of the range of the sensor/actuator


Pass

a straight line between the range points (line 1) Calculate the maximum deviation of the actual curve from this straight line Good when linearities are small and the span is small (thermocouples, thermistors, etc.) Gives an overall figure for nonlinearity

Nonlinearity (cont.)

b. by use of two points defining a portion of the span of the sensor/actuator.

Pass a straight line between the two points Extend the straight line to cover the whole span Calculate the maximum deviation of the actual curve from this straight line Good when a device is used in a small part of its span (i.e. a thermometer used to measure human body temperatures Improves linearity figure in the range of interest

Nonlinearity (cont.)

c. use a linear best fit(least squares) through the points of the curve
Take

n points on the actual curve, xi,yi, i=1,2,n. Assume the best fit is a line y=ax+b (line 2) Calculate a and b from the following:
n xiyi a=
i=1 n n n i=1 n i=1 n 2 xi i=1

xi yi
b=

n i=1

xi2

yi
i=1 n i=1

n i=1 n i=1

n i=1

xi xiyi
2

n xi2 i=1

n xi2 -

xi

Nonlinearity (cont.)

d. use the tangent to the curve at some point on the curve


Take a point in the middle of the range of interest Draw the tangent and extend to the range of the curve (line 3) Calculate the nonlinearity as previously Only useful if nonlinearity is small and the span used very small

Saturation

Saturation a property of sensors or actuators when they no longer respond to the input. Usually at or near the ends of their span and indicates that the output is no longer a function of the input or, more likely is a very nonlinear function of the input. Should be avoided - sensitivity is small or nonexistent In actuators, it can lead to failure of the actuator (increase in power loss, etc.)

Frequency response

Frequency response: The ability of the device to respond to a harmonic (sinusoidal) input A plot of magnitude (power, displacement, etc.) as a function of frequency Indicates the range of the stimulus in which the device is usable (sensors and actuators) Provides important design parameters Sometimes the phase is also given (the pair of plots is the Bode diagram of the device)

Frequency response (cont)

Important design parameters

Bandwidth (B-A, in Hz) Flat frequency range (D-C in Hz) Cutoff frequencies (points A and B in Hz) Resonant frequencies

Frequency response (cont.)

Bandwidth: the distance in Hz between the half power points


Half-power

points: eh=0.707e, ph=0.5p

Flat response range: maximum distance in Hz over which the response is flat (based on some allowable error) Resonant frequency: the frequency (or frequencies) at which the curve peaks or dips

Half power points

Also called 3db points Power is 3db down at these points: 10*log0.5=-3db or 20*log (sqrt(2)/2)=-3db

These points are arbitrary but are now standard. It is usually assumed that the device is useless beyond the half power points

Frequency response (example.)


Bandwidth: 16.5kHz-70Hz=16.43 kHz Flat frequency range: 10kHz-120Hz=9880 Hz Cutoff frequencies: 70 Hz and 16.5 kHz Resonance: 12 kHz

Response time

response time (or delay time), indicates the time needed for the output to reach steady state (or a given percentage of steady state) for a step change in input. Typically the response time will be given as the time needed to reach 90% of steady state output upon exposure to a unit step change in input. The response time of the device is due to the inertia of the device (both mechanical and electrical).

Response time (cont.)

Example: in a temperature sensor:

the time needed for the sensors body to reach the temperature it is trying to measure (thermal time constant) or The electrical time constants inherent in the device due to capacitances and inductances In most cases due to both
Due to mass of the actuator and whatever it is actuating Due to electrical time constants Due to momentum

Example: in an actuator:

Response time (cont.)

Fast response time is usually desirable (not always) Slow response times tend to average readings Large mechanical systems have slow response times Smaller sensors and actuators will almost always respond faster We shall meet sensors in which response time is slowed down on purpose

Calibration

Calibration: the experimental determination of the transfer function of a sensor or actuator. Typically, needed when the transfer function is not known or, When the device must be operated at tolerances below those specified by the manufacturer. Example, use a thermistor with a 5% tolerance on a full scale from 0 to 100C to measure temperature with accuracy of, say, 0.5C. The only way this can be done is by first establishing the transfer function of the sensor.

Calibration (cont.)
Two methods: a. known transfer function:

Determine the slope and crossing point (line function) from two known stimuli (say two temperatures) if the transfer function is linear Measure the output Calculate the slope and crossing point in V=aT+b If the function is more complex, need more points: V = aT + bT2 + cT3 + d 4 measurements to calculate a,b,c,d Must choose points judiciously - if linear, use points close to the range. If not, use equally spaced points or points around the locations of highest curvature

Calibration (cont.)

Two methods: b. Unknown transfer function:

Measure the output Ri at as many input values Ti as is practical Use the entire span Calculate a best linear fit (least squares for example) If the curve is not linear use a polynomial fit May use piecewise linear segments if the number of points is large.

Calibration (cont.)

Calibration is sometimes an operational requirement (thermocouples, pressure sensors) Calibration data is usually supplied by the manufacturer Calibration procedures must be included with the design documents Errors due to calibration must be evaluated and specified

Resolution

Resolution: the minimum increment in stimulus to which it can respond. It is the magnitude of the input change which results in the smallest discernible output. Example: a digital voltmeter with resolution of 0.1V is used to measure the output of a sensor. The change in input (temperature, pressure, etc.) that will provide a change of 0.1V on the voltmeter is the resolution of the sensor/voltmeter system.

Resolution (cont.)

Resolution is determined by the whole system, not only by the sensor The resolution of the sensor may be better than that of the system. The sensor itself must interact with a processor, the limiting factor on resolution may be the sensor or the processor. Resolution may be specified in the units of the stimulus (0.5C for a temperature sensor, 1 mT for a magnetic field sensor, 0.1mm for a proximity sensor, etc) or may be specified as a percentage of span (0.1% for example).

Resolution (cont.)

In digital systems, resolution may be specified in bits (1 bit or 6 bit resolution) In analog systems (those that do not digitize the output) the output is continuous and resolution may be said to be infinitesimal (for the sensor or actuator alone). Resolution of an actuator is the minimum increment in its output which it can provide. Example: a stepper motor may have 180 steps per revolution. Its resolution is 2. A graduated analog voltmeter may be said to have a resolution equal to one graduation (say 0.01V). ( higher resolution may be implied by the user who can easily interpolated between two graduations.

Other parameters
Reliability: a statistical measure of quality of a device which indicates the ability of the device to perform its stated function, under normal operating conditions without failure for a stated period of time or number of cycles. Given in hours, years or in MTBF Usually provided by the manufacturer Based on accelerated lifetime testing

Other parameters

Deadband: the lack of response or

insensitivity of a device over a specific range of the input. In this range which may be small, the output remains constant. A device should not operate in this range unless this insensitivity is acceptable. Example, an actuator which is not responding to inputs around zero may be acceptable but one which freezes over a normal range may not be.

Other parameters

Excitation: The electrical supply required for operation of a sensor or actuator. It may specify the range of voltages under which the device should operate (say 2 to 12V), range of current, power dissipation, maximum excitation as a function of temperature and sometimes frequency. Part of the data sheet for the device Together with other specifications it defines the normal operating conditions of the sensor. Failure to follow rated values may result in erroneous outputs or premature failure of the device.

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