Genetic Engineering

Applications of Genetic Engineeing

Gene Products

This involves the use of Genetically Modified Organisms to produce chemicals for medicinal or industrial applications. Examples of gene products include humulin (human insulin) and factor VIII

Production of humulin
Insulin (a protein) is produced by the cells in the Islets of Langerhans.

Its function is to lower blood glucose levels. A person with diabetes mellitus (Type 1) loses the capacity to produce insulin. Formerly, insulin was extracted from animals such as dogs, pigs and cattle.

Production of humulin contd

Rejection of the insulin, minute quantities produced and difficult extraction made this method inefficient. Since the 1980s, insulin is being made by microorganisms such as yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisceae) and bacteria such as Escherichia coli.

Production of humulin contd

mRNA is extracted from cells of the pancreas. Using mRNA as the substrate and with the aid of reverse transcriptase, cDNA (single stranded DNA) is made. The single strand is then used to make double stranded DNA.

Production of humulin contd

Because insulin has 2 polypeptide chains, two genes have to be made. These are put into bacterial plasmid from E. coli (VECTOR) cut across a marker gene. The recombinant DNA is then replaced into the E. coli cell (RECIPIENT). Each time the bacterial cell replicates the gene is replicated.

Production of humulin contd

The gene is also translated. Both polypeptide chains are collected and mixed to create humulin. After purification, it is sold.

Production of humulin contd

Production of humulin contd

When eukaryotic cells such as yeast and animal cancer cells are used to make insulin, no combination of both polypeptide chains is needed.

Advantages of using humulin

Because humulin is identical to human insulin diabetics who use it do not suffer adverse reactions when using it, unlike other the forms of insulin obtained from animals. The quantities produced are much greater and have overcome the shortage of insulin. Production costs are much lower, and so cheaper supplies can be produced. Ethical and religious objections related to the use of animals are overcome.

New phenotypes

http://tinyurl.com/al5gxxn

Disease resistant papaya

Viral genes that code for capsid proteins were put into the papaya genome. These viral capsid proteins stimulate an immune response in the papaya plant making it resistant to the virus.

http://tinyurl.com/byk9q35

Pest resistant cotton

A gene from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis is put into the cotton. This produces toxins that kill pests such as the Boll weevil. Corn can also be treated this way.

http://tinyurl.com/bzqcv27 http://www.scq.ubc.ca/bt-corn-is-it-worth-the-risk/

Herbicide resistant plants.

Soy, corn and cotton have been genetically modified to be resistant to herbicide. Consequently when these crops are sprayed only the weeds die.

http://tinyurl.com/caonw2k http://tinyurl.com/4xdxs73

Golden rice
A gene controlling the formation of Vitamin A is removed from maize and with the aid of Agrobacterium tumefaciens it is put into the embryos of rice plants. These rice plants are self pollinated.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_rice

Gene therapy
This is the most controversial, significant and least well developed applications of Genetic Engineering. It holds the potential to cure all genetic diseases. There are two types; somatic cell therapy and germ cell therapy.

Somatic cell therapy

The normal allele of the defective gene is placed into a tissue cell (the defective allele has to be recessive). The allele is thus only present in cells formed from this tranformed cell. Can the alleles pass to the offspring?

Cystic fibrosis
CF is treated using somatic cell therapy. It is caused by a mutuation in a gene found on chromosome 7. Three bases are deleted and 1 out of 1840 amino acids is deleted. This gene codes for a protein called Cystic Fibrosis Transmembranal Regulator (CFTR).

Cystic fibrosis contd

CFTR is a channel protein for chloride ions and so the mutation prevents the movement of these ions across the membrane.

http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/disorders/whataregd/cf

Cystic fibrosis contd

Because there is an accumulation of chloride ions in the cell, sodium ions move into the cell. This lowers the water potential of the cell and any mucus produced by the cell is very viscous.

http://www.hgen.pitt.edu/counseling/public_health/cystic_fibrosis.htm

Cystic fibrosis contd

The effects on the lungs are the most serious causing up to 95% of deaths each year.

http://www.thrifthomecare.com/patientcaregivers.asp?issue=cystic_fibrosis

Modern treatments have increased life expectancy from 1 year to 20 years.

Treatment for cystic fibrosis

Physiotherapy to dislodge mucus from lungs

http://www.dr.marahimi.com

Treatment for cystic fibrosis contd

Antibiotics to fight infections

http://textbookofbacteriology.net/control_5.html

Treatment for cystic fibrosis contd

Drugs to loosen mucus

Treatment for cystic fibrosis contd

Enzymes to aid digestion

http://tarahealthcentre.com.au/Services/Treatments1/Enzymes.htm

Treatment for cystic fibrosis contd

Lung transplants

http://childrenshospital.org/az/Site1250/Images/LungTransplant_lrg.gif

Treatment for cystic fibrosis contd

Gene therapy

http://www.biology.ewu.edu/aHerr/Genetics/Bio310/Pages/ch3pages/ch3page.html

Treatment for cystic fibrosis contd

Liposomes are also used to deliver the gene. Sometimes viruses trigger allergic reactions. The gene is delivered to the epithelial cells. Because these cells are shed the effects are not long lasting.

Germ cell therapy

The normal allele is placed in an egg or sperm or zygote. The added allele is therefore present in every cell of the body including the cells of the gonads. Added alleles can be passed to offspring.

http://ibiosas.wikispaces.com/Biotechnology+and+Mutations

Germ cell therapy contd

The genotype of the cell can be altered in one of three ways: repairing the defective gene replacing the defective gene with a normal gene Adding a normal allele leaving the defective one in position.

Stem cells
Germ cell therapy can be used to cure many diseases.

http://biologybiozine.com/articles/unit-2-cells/stem_cell_research_potential_s-php

Moral and ethical issues of GMOs

Antibiotic resistant marker genes put into vectors can escape to other bacteria causing widespread resistance to some antibiotics. Foreign genes could be transferred to wild relatives of crop plants. This would pollute the gene pool restricting crop improvement in the future. Foreign genes can pollute non-GM foods.

Moral and ethical issues of GMOs contd

Superweeds can be created as herbicide resistance genes could be transferred in pollen to weed species.

http://tinyurl.com/bfggfdl

Moral and ethical issues of GMOs contd

More herbicide applications have to be made to GMO crops and just as much pesticides as non-GM foods. There is therefore no advantage in terms of cost to farmers or a reduction in use of chemicals. GM crops do not breed true and so seeds cannot be kept for re use. This benefits large scale farmers, not small farmers.

Moral and ethical issues of GMOs contd

http://www.bibliotecapleyades.net/ciencia/ciencia_monsanto80.htm